tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-47494139068814641352024-03-05T08:19:33.583-08:00Iim Imas BlogIIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.comBlogger28125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-10662405019882236022013-01-03T14:46:00.001-08:002013-01-03T14:46:04.686-08:00makalah kimia bahan makanan<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PANDANGAN MASYARAKAT TENTANG BAHAN
TAMBAHAN MAKANAN PENGUAT RASA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>I.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar
Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemajuan ilmu
dan teknologi berkembang dengan pesat diberbagai bidang, termasuk dalam bidang
pangan, kemajuan teknologi ini membawa dampak positif maupun negatif. Dampak
positif teknologi tersebut mampu meningkatkan kuantitas dan kualitas pangan,
juga meningkatkan diversivikasi, hygiene, sanitasi, praktis dan lebih ekonomis.
Dampak negatif kemajuan teknologi tersebut ternyata cukup besar bagi kesehatan
konsumen dengan adanya penggunaan zat aditif yang berbahaya. Zat aditif adalah
bahan kimia yang dicampurkan ke dalam makanan dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan
kualitas, menambahkan rasa dan memantapkan kesegaran produk tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut
Peraturan Menteri Kesehatan R.I No. 392/Menkes/PER/XII/76, yang dimaksud<span> </span>dengan aditif makanan adalah bahan yang
ditambahkan dan dicampurkan sewaktu mengolah makanan untuk meningkatkan mutu.
Termasuk ke dalamnya adalah pewarna, penyedap rasa dan peraroma, antioksidan,
pengawet, pengemulsi, anti gumpal, pemucat, dan pengental. Pada umumnya bahan
tambahan dapat dibagi menjadi dua bagian besar yaitu:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Aditif
sengaja, Aditif sengaja yaitu aditif yang diberikan dengan sengaja dengan
maksud dan tujuan tertentu, misalnya untuk meningkatkan citarasa, nilai gizi,
dan lain sebagainya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Aditif
tidak sengaja, Aditif tidak sengaja yaitu aditif yang terdapat dalam makanan
jumlah sangat kecil sebagai akibat dari proses pengolahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Makanan
jajanan sudah menjadi bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dari kehidupan masyarakat,
baik di perkotaan maupun di pedesaan.Konsumsi makanan jajanan di masyarakat
diperkirakan terus meningkat mengingat terbatasnya waktu anggota keluarga untuk
mengolah makanan sendiri.Keunggulan makanan jajanan adalah murah dan mudah
didapat, serta cita rasayang sesuai dengan masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Makanan
olahan buatan pabrik, dari mi instan sampai dengan makanan cepat saji. Dari
keripik kentang sampai dengan makanan di warung-warung tegal, yang biasa
dikonsumsi, terutama pada saat makan siang. Semuanya mengandung bumbu penyedap
atau yang biasa dikenal dengan vetsin atau MSG.Vetsin atau monosodium glutamate
(MSG) adalah salah satu penyedap rasa yang sering digunakan saat memasak untuk
menyedapkan masakan. Setelah diberi sedikit vetsin, makanan dapat menjadi sedap
karena di dalam vetsin itu terkandung asam sodium glutanik (glutanic acid
sodium).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila
dilihat dari asalnya, aditif dapat berasal dari sumber alamiah seperti lesitin,
asam nitrat, dapat juga disintesis dari bahan kimia. Pada makalah ini, kami
hanya akan menguraikan beberapa zat aditif yang pada khususnya tentang penyedap
rasa dan peraroma.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hal
ini dimaksudkan agar kita dapat memahami lebih mendalam tentang berbagai senyawa
penyedap rasa dan peraroma dengan rumus molekul dan rumus struktur, pembuatan, penggunaan
serta dampaknya bagi tubuh manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rumusan
Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan
latar belakang diatas, rumusan masalah dari penyusunan laporan ini adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa
yang dimaksud zat aditif makanan?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa
Jenis penyedap rasa dan bagaimana Rumus Struktur dan Rumus Molekulnya?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagaimana
Pembuatan zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa
dampak zat penyedap rasa bagi tubuh manusia?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Bagaimana perilaku masyarakat terhadap makanan
yang Mengandung zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan
Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan
rumusan masalah diatas, maka tujuan penyusunan laporan ini bertujuan untuk Mengetahui:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengertian
zat aditif makanan?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jenis
penyedap rasa, rumus struktur dan rumus molekulnya?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan
zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak
zat penyedap rasa bagi tubuh manusia?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perilaku
masyarakat terhadap makanan yang mengandung zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>II.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DASAR
TEORI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Zat
Aditif Makanan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahan
tambahan makanan adalah bahan yang ditambahkan dengan sengaja ke dalam makanan
dalam jumlah kecil, dengan tujuan untuk memperbaiki penampakan, cita rasa,
tekstur, flavor dan memperpanjang daya simpan. Selain itu dapat meningkatkan
nilai gizi seperti protein, mineral dan vitamin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Zat
aditif adalah bahan kimia yang dicampurkan ke dalam makanan dengan tujuan untuk
meningkatkan kualitas, menambahkan rasa dan memantapkan kesegaran produk
tersebut.</span> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penambahan zat aditif dalam makanan berdasarkan
pertimbangan agar mutu dan kestabilan makanan tetap terjaga dan untuk
mempertahankan nilai gizi yang mungkin rusak atau hilang selama proses
pengolahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
awalnya zat-zat aditif tersebut berasal dari bahan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang
selanjutnya disebut zat aditif alami. Umumnya zat aditif alami tidak
menimbulkan efek samping yang membahayakan kesehatan manusia. Akan tetapi,
jumlah penduduk bumi yang makin bertambah menuntut jumlah makanan yang lebih
besar sehingga zat aditif alami tidak mencukupi lagi. Oleh karena itu, industri
makanan memproduksi makanan yang memakai zat aditif buatan (sintesis). Bahan
baku pembuatannya adalah dari zat-zat kimia yang kemudian direaksikan. Zat
aditif sintesis yang berlebihan dapat menimbulkan beberapa efek samping
misalnya: gatal-gatal, dan kanker.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jenis
penyedap Rasa, Rumus Struktur dan Rumus Molekulnya<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium
Glutamat (MSG)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png"
o:title="msg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="146" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="269" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur MSG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.1pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>12</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">22</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.1pt;">11</span></sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.1pt;">.2H</span><sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2</span></sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mononatrium glutamat yang juga disebut monosodium
glutamat (MSG) adalah kombinasi ikatan garam natrium dari asam glutamat yang
berfungsi sebagai penguat rasa makanan. Kandungan MSG biasanya terdapat dalam
beberapa jenis makanan, terutama bumbu penyedap rasa dan sebagian snack untuk
cemilan sehari-hari.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium Glutamat (MSG) atau biasa di sebut metcin
memberikan rasa gurih dan nikmat pada berbagai macam masakan, walaupun masakan
itu sebernarnya tidak membrikan rasa gurih yang berarti. MSG dapat digunakan
dalam berbagai makanan yang memiliki rasa gurih termasuk daging, ikan, berbagai
sayuran, berbagai saus, berbagai sup dan berbagai bumbu. MSG menimbulkan
gabungan rasa yang baik antara rasa asin dan asam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MSG, yang terdiri dari air, sodium, dan glutamat ini
mudah didapat dan harganya pun murah. Sehingga sering membuat kita lupa akan
adanya efek yang ditimbulkan setelah mengkonsumsi MSG ini. Di dalam MSG, yang
berperan dalam memberikan rasa lezat pada makanan adalah glutamat. Glutamat
merupakan asam amino yang secara alami terdapat pada semua bahan makanan yang
mengandung protein, misalnya keju, daging, susu, ikan, dan sayuran. Glutamat
juga diproduksi oleh tubuh manusia dan sangat diperlukan untuk metabolisme
tubuh dan fungsi otak. Setiap orang rata-rata membutuhkan kurang lebih 11 gram
glutamat per hari yang didapat dari sumber protein alam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1034"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:170.25pt;height:75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.png"
o:title="asam asetat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="100" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="227" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Asam Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">CH<sub>3</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">COOH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Asam<span> </span>asetat<span>
</span>digunakan sebagai<span> </span>pereaksi<span> </span>kimia<span>
</span>untuk<span> </span>menghasilkan<span> </span>berbagai senyawa kimia. Sebagian besar <span> </span>(40-45%)<span>
</span>dari asam<span> </span>asetat dunia digunakan
sebagai bahan<span> </span>untuk<span> </span>memproduksi<span> </span>monomer
vinil<span> </span>asetat (vynil acetate monomer, VAM).
Selain itu asam asetat<span> </span> juga
digunakan dalam produksi anhidrida asetat dan juga ester. Penggunaan asam
asetat lainnya, termasuk penggunaan dalam cuka.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Sitrat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1033"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:176.25pt;height:86.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.png"
o:title="asam sitrat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="115" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="235" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Asam Sitrat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">CH<sub>2</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">(COOH)·COH(COOH)·CH<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2</span></sub>(COOH)</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">atau</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>6</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">8</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">7</span></sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penggunaan utama asam sitrat saat ini adalah sebagai
zat pemberi cita rasa dan pengawet makanan dan minuman,<span> </span>terutama<span>
</span>minuman<span> </span>ringan.<span> </span>Kode<span>
</span>asam<span> </span>sitrat sebagai zat<span> </span>aditif<span>
</span>makanan adalah </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-no-proof: yes;">(Enumber<span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">)</span></span><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-no-proof: yes;">adalah</span><span style="color: black; letter-spacing: -.1pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; letter-spacing: -.05pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">E330</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. Garam sitrat dengan berbagai jenis
logam<span> </span>digunakan<span> </span>untuk<span>
</span>menyediakan<span> </span>logam<span> </span>tersebut<span>
</span>(sebagai bentuk<span> </span>biologis)<span> </span>dalam<span>
</span>banyak<span> </span>suplemen<span> </span>makanan.<span>
</span>Sifat sitrat sebagai<span> </span>larutan
penyangga<span> </span>digunakan<span> </span>sebagai<span>
</span>pengendali<span> </span>pH dalam larutan pembersih<span> </span>dalam rumah<span>
</span>tangga<span> </span>dan<span> </span>obat-obatan. Kemampuan<span> </span>asam sitrat untuk<span> </span>mengkelat logam<span> </span>menjadikannya<span> </span>berguna<span>
</span>sebagai<span> </span>bahan<span> </span>sabun<span>
</span>dan<span> </span>deterjen. Dengan mengkelat<span> </span>logam<span>
</span>pada<span> </span>air<span> </span>sadah,<span>
</span>asam<span> </span>sitrat<span> </span>memungkinkan sabun dan deterjen<span> </span>membentuk<span>
</span>busa<span> </span>dan<span> </span>berfungsi<span>
</span>dengan<span> </span>baik<span> </span>tanpa<span>
</span>penambahan<span> </span>zat penghilang
kesadahan. Demikian pula, asam sitrat digunakan untuk memulihkan bahan penukan
ion yang digunakan<span> </span>pada alat penghilang
kesadahan dengan menghilangkan ion-ion logam yang terakumulasi pada bahan
penukar<span> </span>ion<span> </span>tersebut<span>
</span>sebagai<span> </span>kompleks<span> </span>sitrat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam<span>
</span>sitrat<span> </span>digunakan<span> </span>di<span>
</span>dalam industri<span> </span>bioteknologi<span> </span>dan<span> </span>obat-obatan<span> </span>untuk<span>
</span>melapisi<span> </span>(passivate)<span> </span>pipa mesin dalam<span> </span>proses<span>
</span>kemurnian<span> </span>tinggi<span> </span>sebagai<span>
</span>ganti<span> </span>asam<span> </span>nitrat,<span>
</span>karena<span> </span>asam<span> </span>nitrat dapat<span>
</span>menjadi zat berbahaya setelah<span>
</span>digunakan<span> </span>untuk<span> </span>keperluan<span>
</span>tersebut, sementara<span> </span>asam<span> </span>sitrat<span>
</span>tidak.Asam<span> </span>sitrat<span> </span>dapat<span>
</span>pula<span> </span>ditambahkan<span> </span>pada<span>
</span>es<span> </span>krim untuk<span> </span>menjaga terpisahnya gelembung gelembung
lemak.<span> </span> Dalam<span> </span>resep makanan asam sitrat dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti sari jeruk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1032"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:191.25pt;height:75.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.png"
o:title="asam butirat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="101" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="255" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Struktur Asam Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 14.65pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>2</sub>H</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Asam</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">butanoat</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">(Asam</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">butirat)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 21.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Asam<span> </span>butirat<span>
</span>berguna<span> </span>untuk<span> </span>melawan<span>
</span>infeksi<span> </span>khamir<span> </span>(mikroorganisme<span> </span>yangmelakukan fragmentasi buah menjadi wine)
dengan asam glukonoat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 14.65pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1031"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:192pt;height:100.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.png"
o:title="kafein"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="134" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="256" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Kefein<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>6</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub>10</sub>N<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">4</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein biasanya aman dikonsumsi dalam jumlah yang
tidak berlebihan. Para ahli menyarankan 200-300 miligram konsumsi kafein dalam
sehari merupakan jumlah yang cukup untuk orang dewasa.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1030"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:220.5pt;height:79.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.png"
o:title="isoamil asetat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="106" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="294" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Isoamil Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rumus molekul : <span style="color: black; letter-spacing: -.05pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>7</sub></span><span style="color: black; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">14</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></sub></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil asetat dalam etanol digunakan sebagai perasa
buatan. Isoamil asetat juga<span>
</span>digunakan<span> </span>dalam test efectivitas
dari transpirator karena zat<span> </span>ini<span> </span>mempunyai<span>
</span>bau yang tajam yang khas dan digunakan dalam eksperiment sebagai
sesuatu<span> </span>yang dapat mendeteksi rendahnya konsentrasi.
Isoamil Asetat juga digunakan sebagai campuran dalam pernis dan nitroselulosa
pernis. Isoamil asetat ada dalam hormon feromon pada lebah madu. Isoamil asetat
dapat digunakan untuk<span> </span>menarik
sekelompok besar lebah madu dalam lingkup kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Amil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_7" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:180.75pt;
height:76.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png"
o:title="amil asetat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="102" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="241" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar: Rumus Struktur
Amil Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>14</sub>O<sub>2</sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">(CH<sub>3</sub></span>COO(CH<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2</span></sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">)<sub>4</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Amil
asetat memiliki aroma yang mirip dengan aroma pisang dan apel yang tidak dapat
dideteksi oleh semua orang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asetal
Dehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_i1028"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:141.75pt;height:75.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png"
o:title="asetal dehida"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="101" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="189" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Asetal Dehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Asetaldehida terdapat
dalam buah-buahan dan kopi yang sudah matang, dan roti segar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Benzaldehid<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_9" o:spid="_x0000_i1027"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:76.5pt;height:81pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.png"
o:title="benzaldehid"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="108" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="102" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Benzaldehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Benzaldehida biasanya digunakan sebagai perasa Almond.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menthol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_10" o:spid="_x0000_i1026"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:109.5pt;height:90pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.png"
o:title="menthol"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="120" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_10" width="146" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Menthol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
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o:spid="_x0000_s1028" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 55px; left: 0px; margin-left: 247px; margin-top: 153px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 31px; z-index: -1;"><img height="55" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.gif" v:shapes="WS_polygon61" width="31" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mentol<span>
</span>merupakan<span> </span>senyawa<span> </span>seperti<span>
</span>lilin,<span> </span>bahan<span> </span>seperti<span>
</span>kristal,<span> </span>bening dan putih
warnanya, yang berbentuk padat dalam suhu ruangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>11.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Butilbutirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_11" o:spid="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:167.25pt;height:57pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image022.png"
o:title="butilbutirat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="76" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="223" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Butilbutirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.5pt; position: relative; top: -1.5pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.5pt; position: relative; top: -1.5pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>16</sub>O<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Digunakan<span>
</span>dalam<span> </span>pemanis<span> </span>buatan<span>
</span>untuk<span> </span>membuat<span> </span>rasa<span>
</span>manis<span> </span>buah terutama<span> </span>nanas. Ini juga terdapat dalam berbagai
buah-buahan seperti apel, pisang, dan strawberry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan
Zat Penyedap Rasa Kimia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium
Glutamat (MSG)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MSG dibuat melalui proses fermentasi dari tetes gula
(molases) oleh bakteri (Brevibacterium lactofermentum). Dalam proses fermentasi
ini, pertama-tama akan dihasilkan asam glutamat. Asam glutamat yang terjadi
dari proses fermentasi ini, kemudian ditambah soda (Sodium Carbonate), sehingga
akan terbentuk monosodium glutamat (MSG). MSG yang terjadi ini, kemudian
dimurnikan dan dikristalisasi, sehingga merupakan serbuk kristal murni, yang
siap dijual di pasar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam asetat diproduksi secara sintesis maupun secara
alami melalui fermentasi bakteri. Sekarang hanya 10% dari produksi asam asetat
dihasilkan melalui jalur alami,<span>
</span>namun<span> </span>kebanyakan<span> </span>hukum<span>
</span>yang<span> </span>mengatur<span> </span>bahwa<span>
</span>asetat<span> </span>yang<span> </span>terdapat dalam<span> </span>cuka<span>
</span>haruslah<span> </span>berasal<span> </span>dari biologis.<span> </span>Dari<span>
</span>asam<span> </span>asetat<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>diproduksi oleh<span> </span>industri<span> </span>kimia,<span>
</span>75% diantaranya<span> </span>diproduksi<span> </span>melalui<span>
</span>karbonilasi<span> </span>metanol.
Sisanya dihasilkan melalui metode-metode alternatif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Sitrat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam<span>
</span>proses<span> </span>produksi<span> </span>asam<span>
</span>sitrat<span> </span>yang <span> </span>sampai<span>
</span>saat<span> </span><span> </span>ini<span>
</span>lazim digunakan, biakan<span>
</span>kapang<span> </span>Aspergillus<span> </span>niger<span>
</span>diberi<span> </span>sukrosa<span> </span>agar<span>
</span>membentuk asam<span> </span>sitrat. Setelah<span> </span>kapang<span>
</span>disaring<span> </span>dari<span> </span>larutan<span>
</span>yang<span> </span>dihasilkan,<span> </span>asam sitrat<span>
</span>diisolasi dengan<span> </span>cara<span> </span>mengendapkannya<span> </span>dengan<span>
</span>kalsium<span> </span>hidroksida<span> </span>membentuk<span>
</span>garam kalsium<span> </span> sitrat. Asam
sitrat di-regenerasi-kan dari kalsium sitrat dengan penambahan asam sulfat.
Cara lain pengisolasian asam sitrat dari <span> </span>hasil
fermentasi adalah dengan ekstraksi menggunakan larutan hidrokarbon senyawa basa
organic trilaurilamina yang diikuti dengan re-ekstraksi dari larutan organic tersebut
dengan air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan asam butirat dengan<span> </span>mengocok<span>
</span>dan<span> </span>mengguncangkan<span> </span>krim<span>
</span>susu hingga tercapai keadaan semipadat. Margarin umumnya dibuat dari
minyak nabati. Kedua<span> </span>jenis<span> </span>bahan<span>
</span>pangan<span> </span>ini<span> </span>merupakan emulsi<span> </span>dengan<span>
</span>tipe <span> </span>yang<span> </span>sama, yaitu fase<span> </span>air<span>
</span>yang<span> </span>berada<span> </span>dalam<span>
</span>fase<span> </span>minyak (water<span> </span>in<span>
</span>oil).<span> </span>Air<span> </span>dan<span>
</span>minyak merupakan<span> </span>cairan<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>tidak<span> </span>saling<span> </span>berbaur<span>
</span>karena<span> </span>memiliki berat<span> </span>jenis<span>
</span>yang berbeda. Untuk menjaga agar butiran minyak tetap tersuspensi<span> </span>di dalam air, pada mentega dan margarine
diperlukan suatu<span> </span>zat<span> </span>pengemulsi<span>
</span>(emulsifier). Bahan yang dapat berperan sebagai pengemulsi antara lain
kuning telur, kasein, albumin,<span> </span>atau<span> </span>lesitin.<span>
</span>Daya<span> </span>kerja<span> </span>emulsifier<span>
</span>didukung<span> </span>oleh<span> </span>bentuk<span>
</span>molekulnya yang<span> </span>dapat<span> </span>terikat <span> </span>pada<span>
</span>minyak<span> </span>maupun<span> </span>air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut Jurnal American Chemical Society, kebanyakan
kopi yang dibuat dengan<span> </span>kadar kafein
rendah dibuat dengan larutan kimia<span> </span>yang
dapat menyerap kafein dari biji<span> </span>kimia.
Atau dapat pula menggunakan tehnik “Swiss Water Process” yaitu menggunakan air
panas dan uap untuk memisahkan kafein dari biji kopi. Selain<span> </span>itu<span>
</span>saat ini sedang diteliti pemanfaatan bioteknologi untuk
penghancuran<span> </span>kafein<span> </span>dalam tanaman<span>
</span>kopi,<span> </span>salah<span> </span>satunya<span>
</span>adalah<span> </span>penggunaan bakteri<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>dipasangkan<span> </span>dengan<span> </span>theophylline,<span>
</span>yaitu<span> </span>senyawa<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>dihasilkan untuk merusak kafein pada<span>
</span>tanaman kopi dan teh. Diharapkan bakteri ini dapat menghancurkan<span> </span>kafein<span>
</span>secara<span> </span>cepat,<span> </span>tetapi<span>
</span>tetap<span> </span>mempertahankan<span> </span>rasa<span>
</span>alami kopi yang nikmat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil asetat merupakan ester yang dibentuk dari
reaksi antara isoamil alcohol dan asam asetat dengan katalis asam sulfat. Asam
ini dinetralkan, diekstrak, dan hasilnya<span>
</span>dicuci<span> </span>dan<span> </span>kemudian<span>
</span>didistilasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Amil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa amil asetat merupakan senyawa ester hasil
kondensasi dari asam asetat dengan 1-pentanol. Padahal ester dibentuk dari
isomer pentanol yang lain (amil alkohol) atau campuran dari beberapa pentanol
yang sering menunjukkan sebagai amil asetat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asetaldehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa ini dihasilkan oleh tumbuhan<span> </span>dalam metabolism normalnya. Asetaldehida
juga merupakan zat antara dalam produksi asam asetat, beberapa ester, dan zat-zat
kimia lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menthol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menthol<span>
</span>merupakan<span> </span>komponen<span> </span>bahan<span>
</span>sintesis<span> </span>organik<span> </span>yang terdapat dalam daun mint dan mint oil. Mentha
arvensis adalah spesies utama<span> </span>dari mint
yang digunakan untuk membuat kristak mentol alami. Species ini adalah tumbuhan pokok
yang utama tumbuh di Uttar Pradesh daerah India.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Butil Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Butil butirat merupakan komponen organic yang
dibentuk dari kondensasi asam butirat dan butanol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak
Zat Penyedap Rasa bagi Tubuh Manusia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium
Glutamat (MSG)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurunnya
fungsi otak, Ketika sel-sel neuron di otak menerima senyawa Monosodium Glutamat
(MSG), mereka menjadi sangat bergairah dan meningkatkan impulsnya sampai pada
tingkat kelelahan yang sangat tinggi. Tapi, beberapa jam kemudian neuron-neuron
tersebut mati seakan-akan bergairah untuk mati. Jika banyak sel neuron yang
mati, maka fungsi otak pun bisa menurun, yang tentunya sangat berbahaya bagi
perkembangan otak, terutama anak-anak. Dalam suatu percobaan, anak-anak yang
mengonsumsi sup mengandung MSG dan meminum Nutrasweet (soft drink) darahnya
akan mempunyai tingkat excitotoxin (keracunan) enam kali lebih besar dari
excitotoxin yang menghancurkan hypothalamus neuron pada bayi tikus.Jadi , MSG
dapat menyebabkan menurunnya fungsi otak dan semakin muda anak yang mengonsumsi
MSG, semakin besar bahaya yang dapat ditimbulkan MSG pada otak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">kanker,
MSG dapat menyebabkan kanker karena Glutamat dapat membentuk pirolisis akibat
pemanasan dengan suhu tinggi dan dalam waktu lama. pirolisis ini sangat
karsinogenik. Padahal masakan protein lain yang tidak ditambah MSG pun, bisa
juga membentuk senyawa karsinogenik bila dipanaskan dengan suhu tinggi dan
dalam waktu yang lama. Karena asam amino penyusun protein, seperti triptopan,
penilalanin, lisin, dan metionin juga dapat mengalami pirolisis dari penelitian
tadi jelas cara memasak amat berpengaruh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Alergi,
MSG tidak mempunyai potensi untuk mengancam kesehatan masyarakat umum, tetapi
juga bahwa reaksi hypersensitif atau alergi akibat mengkonsumsi MSG memang
dapat terjadi pada sebagian kecil sekali dari konsumen. Beberapa peneliti
bahkan cenderung berpendapat nampaknya glutamat bukan merupakan senyawa
penyebab yang efektif, tetapi besar kemungkinannya gejala tersebut ditimbulkan
oleh senyawa hasil metabolisme seperti misalnya GABA (Gama Amino Butyric Acid),
serotinin atau bahkan oleh histamine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hipertensi,
Kandungan natrium di dalam MSG beserta sifat adiktif yang ada pada MSG, dan
sebagai salah satu penyebab hipertensi (tekanan darah tinggi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Obesitas,
MSG mengganggu hubungan endokrin antara meta<span>
</span>thermoregulatory modulators<span>
</span>(neuropeptida dan leptin) dan brown fat. MSG mengurangi thermogenicity
brom fat sambil menekan asupan makanan. Artinya, MSG berpotensi menyebabkan
obesitas bahkan ketika seseorang mengurangi asupan makanan sekalipun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>f.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kerusakan
Retina, Retina adalah suatu lapisan pada mata yang berfungsi menerima cahaya
sebelum diteruskan ke otak untuk diterjemahkan sebagai suatu objek penglihatan.
Berbagai studi telah dilakukan tentang kerusakan retina akibat penggunaan MSG.
MSG dalam dosis tertentu diketahui dapat merusak neuron-neuron (sel-sel saraf)
pada lapisan dalam retina mata.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>g.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kerusakan
hipotalamus dan struktur otak lain, sakit kepala (magrain) memperberat keadaan
autisme dan hiperaktifitas, memperberat serangan asma, dan menimbulkan alergi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>h.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Diabetes,
Glutamat melakukan ikatan dengan reseptornya di dalam pankreas. Akibatnya,
pankreas akan memproduksi insulin lebih banyak dari biasanya. Dengan dipacunya
produksi insulin, otomatis perombakan kadar gula dalam darah mengalami
peningkatan. “Itulah yang membuat glutamat bisa sebagai salah satu faktor
penyebab diabetes”. Pankreas yang mendapat perlakuan dengan glutamat
mengeluarkan insulin lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan biakan pankreas yang
tanpa glutamat. Inilah yang membuat kelenjar pankreas makin lama mengalami
kerusakan. Dalam keadaan normal, peningkatan insulin berkaitan erat dengan
melonjaknya kadar gula dalam darah. Gula yang berlebih itu, dengan bantuan
insulin, akan dirombak menjadi energi yang kemudian disimpan dalam jaringan
tubuh seperti otot, jaringan lemak, dan hati. Peneliti tersebut menemukan bahwa
efek dari glutamat itu lebih nyata bila dibarengi tingginya kadar gula. Namun,
dalam kadar gula yang rendah pun, pengeluaran insulin masih terus berlangsung
jika kelebihan glutamat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>i.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kadar kolesterol tinggi tidak selalu
berdampak buruk bagi kesehatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>j.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">asam sitrat kering ataupun larutan asam
sitrat pekat dapat menyebabkan iritasi kulit dan mata.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>k.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Konsumsi<span> </span>kafein<span>
</span>secara berlebihan<span> </span>dapat
menimbulkan berbagai masalah, seperti warna gigi yang berubah menjadi coklat
atau gelap, bau mulut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>l.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein dapat memicu munculnya serangan
sakit kepala migren pada individu yang rentan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Alternatif
Bahan Penyedap Rasa Alami<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain MSG, vitsin atau micin, anda bisa mencoba
menggantinya menggunakan bahan-bahan alami lainnya seperti:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bawang
putih<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Memarkan bawang putih yang telah dikupas, dan tumis
dengan sedikit minyak hingga layu, sebelum memasukkan bahan-bahan lainnya.
Bawang putih juga bisa dihaluskan, kemudian ditumis agar lebih merata dengan
bahan lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Udang,
teri atau ebi<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Makanan laut memiliki ‘vetsin’ alami dalam tubuhnya,
menghasilkan rasa gurih dan nikmat baik ketika dimasak sendiri ataupun
dicampurkan ke dalam bahan lain. Untuk udang, teri atau ebi kering, bisa
mengeringkannya dengan oven, kemudian menggerusnya dengan food processor untuk
mengubah bentuknya menjadi bubuk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kaldu
ayam atau sapi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kaldu dari ayam atau sapi paling pas untuk semua
masakan, bisa menggunakan tulang belulang atau daging yang direbus dalam air
mendidih selama beberapa waktu untuk membuat kaldu ini. Tambahkan juga beberapa
sayuran dan rempah agar kaldu semakin lezat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gula
pasir<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sudah bukan rahasia jika gula pasir bisa menjadi
pengganti MSG. Tambahkan sedikit saja gula pasir ke dalam masakan, maka rasa
gurih masakan justru akan keluar. Jangan terlalu banyak ya, agar masakan tidak
menjadi manis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sosis
sapi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ada kaldu dan tidak mau repot dengan daging
mentah, bisa menggunakan sosis sapi. Iris tipis-tipis dan campurkan ke dalam
masakan anda. Sosis sendiri sudah mengandung garam, kaldu sapi dan juga sedikit
MSG, sehingga bisa menambah cita rasa masakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR
PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rahardian,
Putri. 2010. <i>Jurnal Penelitian Penyedap
Rasa dan Aroma. </i>Surabaya : Universitas Negeri Surabaya. tidak di terbitkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span> </span><a href="http://anaa-ziiyah.blogspot.com/2012/04/makalah-hubungan-pengaruh-msg-terhadap.html"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">http://anaa-ziiyah.blogspot.com/2012/04/makalah-hubungan-pengaruh-msg-terhadap.html</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://andre4088.blogspot.com/2012/01/btp-penyedap-rasa-dan-aroma-penguat.html"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://andre4088.blogspot.com/2012/01/btp-penyedap-rasa-dan-aroma-penguat.html</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-60959171883265036532013-01-03T14:45:00.003-08:002013-01-03T14:45:59.842-08:00makalah kimia bahan makanan<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PANDANGAN MASYARAKAT TENTANG BAHAN
TAMBAHAN MAKANAN PENGUAT RASA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>I.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar
Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemajuan ilmu
dan teknologi berkembang dengan pesat diberbagai bidang, termasuk dalam bidang
pangan, kemajuan teknologi ini membawa dampak positif maupun negatif. Dampak
positif teknologi tersebut mampu meningkatkan kuantitas dan kualitas pangan,
juga meningkatkan diversivikasi, hygiene, sanitasi, praktis dan lebih ekonomis.
Dampak negatif kemajuan teknologi tersebut ternyata cukup besar bagi kesehatan
konsumen dengan adanya penggunaan zat aditif yang berbahaya. Zat aditif adalah
bahan kimia yang dicampurkan ke dalam makanan dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan
kualitas, menambahkan rasa dan memantapkan kesegaran produk tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut
Peraturan Menteri Kesehatan R.I No. 392/Menkes/PER/XII/76, yang dimaksud<span> </span>dengan aditif makanan adalah bahan yang
ditambahkan dan dicampurkan sewaktu mengolah makanan untuk meningkatkan mutu.
Termasuk ke dalamnya adalah pewarna, penyedap rasa dan peraroma, antioksidan,
pengawet, pengemulsi, anti gumpal, pemucat, dan pengental. Pada umumnya bahan
tambahan dapat dibagi menjadi dua bagian besar yaitu:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Aditif
sengaja, Aditif sengaja yaitu aditif yang diberikan dengan sengaja dengan
maksud dan tujuan tertentu, misalnya untuk meningkatkan citarasa, nilai gizi,
dan lain sebagainya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Aditif
tidak sengaja, Aditif tidak sengaja yaitu aditif yang terdapat dalam makanan
jumlah sangat kecil sebagai akibat dari proses pengolahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Makanan
jajanan sudah menjadi bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dari kehidupan masyarakat,
baik di perkotaan maupun di pedesaan.Konsumsi makanan jajanan di masyarakat
diperkirakan terus meningkat mengingat terbatasnya waktu anggota keluarga untuk
mengolah makanan sendiri.Keunggulan makanan jajanan adalah murah dan mudah
didapat, serta cita rasayang sesuai dengan masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Makanan
olahan buatan pabrik, dari mi instan sampai dengan makanan cepat saji. Dari
keripik kentang sampai dengan makanan di warung-warung tegal, yang biasa
dikonsumsi, terutama pada saat makan siang. Semuanya mengandung bumbu penyedap
atau yang biasa dikenal dengan vetsin atau MSG.Vetsin atau monosodium glutamate
(MSG) adalah salah satu penyedap rasa yang sering digunakan saat memasak untuk
menyedapkan masakan. Setelah diberi sedikit vetsin, makanan dapat menjadi sedap
karena di dalam vetsin itu terkandung asam sodium glutanik (glutanic acid
sodium).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila
dilihat dari asalnya, aditif dapat berasal dari sumber alamiah seperti lesitin,
asam nitrat, dapat juga disintesis dari bahan kimia. Pada makalah ini, kami
hanya akan menguraikan beberapa zat aditif yang pada khususnya tentang penyedap
rasa dan peraroma.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hal
ini dimaksudkan agar kita dapat memahami lebih mendalam tentang berbagai senyawa
penyedap rasa dan peraroma dengan rumus molekul dan rumus struktur, pembuatan, penggunaan
serta dampaknya bagi tubuh manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rumusan
Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan
latar belakang diatas, rumusan masalah dari penyusunan laporan ini adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa
yang dimaksud zat aditif makanan?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa
Jenis penyedap rasa dan bagaimana Rumus Struktur dan Rumus Molekulnya?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagaimana
Pembuatan zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa
dampak zat penyedap rasa bagi tubuh manusia?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Bagaimana perilaku masyarakat terhadap makanan
yang Mengandung zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan
Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan
rumusan masalah diatas, maka tujuan penyusunan laporan ini bertujuan untuk Mengetahui:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengertian
zat aditif makanan?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jenis
penyedap rasa, rumus struktur dan rumus molekulnya?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan
zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak
zat penyedap rasa bagi tubuh manusia?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perilaku
masyarakat terhadap makanan yang mengandung zat penyedap rasa?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>II.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DASAR
TEORI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Zat
Aditif Makanan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahan
tambahan makanan adalah bahan yang ditambahkan dengan sengaja ke dalam makanan
dalam jumlah kecil, dengan tujuan untuk memperbaiki penampakan, cita rasa,
tekstur, flavor dan memperpanjang daya simpan. Selain itu dapat meningkatkan
nilai gizi seperti protein, mineral dan vitamin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Zat
aditif adalah bahan kimia yang dicampurkan ke dalam makanan dengan tujuan untuk
meningkatkan kualitas, menambahkan rasa dan memantapkan kesegaran produk
tersebut.</span> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penambahan zat aditif dalam makanan berdasarkan
pertimbangan agar mutu dan kestabilan makanan tetap terjaga dan untuk
mempertahankan nilai gizi yang mungkin rusak atau hilang selama proses
pengolahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
awalnya zat-zat aditif tersebut berasal dari bahan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang
selanjutnya disebut zat aditif alami. Umumnya zat aditif alami tidak
menimbulkan efek samping yang membahayakan kesehatan manusia. Akan tetapi,
jumlah penduduk bumi yang makin bertambah menuntut jumlah makanan yang lebih
besar sehingga zat aditif alami tidak mencukupi lagi. Oleh karena itu, industri
makanan memproduksi makanan yang memakai zat aditif buatan (sintesis). Bahan
baku pembuatannya adalah dari zat-zat kimia yang kemudian direaksikan. Zat
aditif sintesis yang berlebihan dapat menimbulkan beberapa efek samping
misalnya: gatal-gatal, dan kanker.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jenis
penyedap Rasa, Rumus Struktur dan Rumus Molekulnya<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium
Glutamat (MSG)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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o:title="msg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="146" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="269" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur MSG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.1pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>12</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">22</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.1pt;">11</span></sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.1pt;">.2H</span><sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2</span></sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mononatrium glutamat yang juga disebut monosodium
glutamat (MSG) adalah kombinasi ikatan garam natrium dari asam glutamat yang
berfungsi sebagai penguat rasa makanan. Kandungan MSG biasanya terdapat dalam
beberapa jenis makanan, terutama bumbu penyedap rasa dan sebagian snack untuk
cemilan sehari-hari.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium Glutamat (MSG) atau biasa di sebut metcin
memberikan rasa gurih dan nikmat pada berbagai macam masakan, walaupun masakan
itu sebernarnya tidak membrikan rasa gurih yang berarti. MSG dapat digunakan
dalam berbagai makanan yang memiliki rasa gurih termasuk daging, ikan, berbagai
sayuran, berbagai saus, berbagai sup dan berbagai bumbu. MSG menimbulkan
gabungan rasa yang baik antara rasa asin dan asam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MSG, yang terdiri dari air, sodium, dan glutamat ini
mudah didapat dan harganya pun murah. Sehingga sering membuat kita lupa akan
adanya efek yang ditimbulkan setelah mengkonsumsi MSG ini. Di dalam MSG, yang
berperan dalam memberikan rasa lezat pada makanan adalah glutamat. Glutamat
merupakan asam amino yang secara alami terdapat pada semua bahan makanan yang
mengandung protein, misalnya keju, daging, susu, ikan, dan sayuran. Glutamat
juga diproduksi oleh tubuh manusia dan sangat diperlukan untuk metabolisme
tubuh dan fungsi otak. Setiap orang rata-rata membutuhkan kurang lebih 11 gram
glutamat per hari yang didapat dari sumber protein alam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1034"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:170.25pt;height:75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.png"
o:title="asam asetat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="100" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="227" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Asam Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">CH<sub>3</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">COOH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Asam<span> </span>asetat<span>
</span>digunakan sebagai<span> </span>pereaksi<span> </span>kimia<span>
</span>untuk<span> </span>menghasilkan<span> </span>berbagai senyawa kimia. Sebagian besar <span> </span>(40-45%)<span>
</span>dari asam<span> </span>asetat dunia digunakan
sebagai bahan<span> </span>untuk<span> </span>memproduksi<span> </span>monomer
vinil<span> </span>asetat (vynil acetate monomer, VAM).
Selain itu asam asetat<span> </span> juga
digunakan dalam produksi anhidrida asetat dan juga ester. Penggunaan asam
asetat lainnya, termasuk penggunaan dalam cuka.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Sitrat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1033"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:176.25pt;height:86.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.png"
o:title="asam sitrat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="115" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="235" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Asam Sitrat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">CH<sub>2</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">(COOH)·COH(COOH)·CH<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2</span></sub>(COOH)</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">atau</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>6</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">8</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">7</span></sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penggunaan utama asam sitrat saat ini adalah sebagai
zat pemberi cita rasa dan pengawet makanan dan minuman,<span> </span>terutama<span>
</span>minuman<span> </span>ringan.<span> </span>Kode<span>
</span>asam<span> </span>sitrat sebagai zat<span> </span>aditif<span>
</span>makanan adalah </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-no-proof: yes;">(Enumber<span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">)</span></span><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-no-proof: yes;">adalah</span><span style="color: black; letter-spacing: -.1pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; letter-spacing: -.05pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">E330</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. Garam sitrat dengan berbagai jenis
logam<span> </span>digunakan<span> </span>untuk<span>
</span>menyediakan<span> </span>logam<span> </span>tersebut<span>
</span>(sebagai bentuk<span> </span>biologis)<span> </span>dalam<span>
</span>banyak<span> </span>suplemen<span> </span>makanan.<span>
</span>Sifat sitrat sebagai<span> </span>larutan
penyangga<span> </span>digunakan<span> </span>sebagai<span>
</span>pengendali<span> </span>pH dalam larutan pembersih<span> </span>dalam rumah<span>
</span>tangga<span> </span>dan<span> </span>obat-obatan. Kemampuan<span> </span>asam sitrat untuk<span> </span>mengkelat logam<span> </span>menjadikannya<span> </span>berguna<span>
</span>sebagai<span> </span>bahan<span> </span>sabun<span>
</span>dan<span> </span>deterjen. Dengan mengkelat<span> </span>logam<span>
</span>pada<span> </span>air<span> </span>sadah,<span>
</span>asam<span> </span>sitrat<span> </span>memungkinkan sabun dan deterjen<span> </span>membentuk<span>
</span>busa<span> </span>dan<span> </span>berfungsi<span>
</span>dengan<span> </span>baik<span> </span>tanpa<span>
</span>penambahan<span> </span>zat penghilang
kesadahan. Demikian pula, asam sitrat digunakan untuk memulihkan bahan penukan
ion yang digunakan<span> </span>pada alat penghilang
kesadahan dengan menghilangkan ion-ion logam yang terakumulasi pada bahan
penukar<span> </span>ion<span> </span>tersebut<span>
</span>sebagai<span> </span>kompleks<span> </span>sitrat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam<span>
</span>sitrat<span> </span>digunakan<span> </span>di<span>
</span>dalam industri<span> </span>bioteknologi<span> </span>dan<span> </span>obat-obatan<span> </span>untuk<span>
</span>melapisi<span> </span>(passivate)<span> </span>pipa mesin dalam<span> </span>proses<span>
</span>kemurnian<span> </span>tinggi<span> </span>sebagai<span>
</span>ganti<span> </span>asam<span> </span>nitrat,<span>
</span>karena<span> </span>asam<span> </span>nitrat dapat<span>
</span>menjadi zat berbahaya setelah<span>
</span>digunakan<span> </span>untuk<span> </span>keperluan<span>
</span>tersebut, sementara<span> </span>asam<span> </span>sitrat<span>
</span>tidak.Asam<span> </span>sitrat<span> </span>dapat<span>
</span>pula<span> </span>ditambahkan<span> </span>pada<span>
</span>es<span> </span>krim untuk<span> </span>menjaga terpisahnya gelembung gelembung
lemak.<span> </span> Dalam<span> </span>resep makanan asam sitrat dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti sari jeruk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1032"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:191.25pt;height:75.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.png"
o:title="asam butirat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="101" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="255" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Struktur Asam Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 14.65pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>2</sub>H</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Asam</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">butanoat</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">(Asam</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">butirat)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 21.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Asam<span> </span>butirat<span>
</span>berguna<span> </span>untuk<span> </span>melawan<span>
</span>infeksi<span> </span>khamir<span> </span>(mikroorganisme<span> </span>yangmelakukan fragmentasi buah menjadi wine)
dengan asam glukonoat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1031"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:192pt;height:100.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.png"
o:title="kafein"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="134" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="256" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Kefein<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>6</sub></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub>10</sub>N<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">4</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein biasanya aman dikonsumsi dalam jumlah yang
tidak berlebihan. Para ahli menyarankan 200-300 miligram konsumsi kafein dalam
sehari merupakan jumlah yang cukup untuk orang dewasa.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1030"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:220.5pt;height:79.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.png"
o:title="isoamil asetat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="106" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="294" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Isoamil Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rumus molekul : <span style="color: black; letter-spacing: -.05pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>7</sub></span><span style="color: black; mso-no-proof: yes;">H<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">14</span></sub>O<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></sub></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil asetat dalam etanol digunakan sebagai perasa
buatan. Isoamil asetat juga<span>
</span>digunakan<span> </span>dalam test efectivitas
dari transpirator karena zat<span> </span>ini<span> </span>mempunyai<span>
</span>bau yang tajam yang khas dan digunakan dalam eksperiment sebagai
sesuatu<span> </span>yang dapat mendeteksi rendahnya konsentrasi.
Isoamil Asetat juga digunakan sebagai campuran dalam pernis dan nitroselulosa
pernis. Isoamil asetat ada dalam hormon feromon pada lebah madu. Isoamil asetat
dapat digunakan untuk<span> </span>menarik
sekelompok besar lebah madu dalam lingkup kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Amil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_7" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:180.75pt;
height:76.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png"
o:title="amil asetat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="102" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="241" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar: Rumus Struktur
Amil Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>14</sub>O<sub>2</sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">(CH<sub>3</sub></span>COO(CH<sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">2</span></sub><span style="letter-spacing: -.05pt;">)<sub>4</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Amil
asetat memiliki aroma yang mirip dengan aroma pisang dan apel yang tidak dapat
dideteksi oleh semua orang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asetal
Dehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_i1028"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:141.75pt;height:75.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png"
o:title="asetal dehida"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="101" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="189" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Asetal Dehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Asetaldehida terdapat
dalam buah-buahan dan kopi yang sudah matang, dan roti segar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Benzaldehid<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_9" o:spid="_x0000_i1027"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:76.5pt;height:81pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.png"
o:title="benzaldehid"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="108" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="102" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Benzaldehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Benzaldehida biasanya digunakan sebagai perasa Almond.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menthol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_10" o:spid="_x0000_i1026"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:109.5pt;height:90pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.png"
o:title="menthol"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="120" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_10" width="146" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Menthol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="polygon2"
o:spid="_x0000_s1028" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
margin-left:0;margin-top:0;width:50pt;height:50pt;z-index:3;visibility:hidden'
coordsize="37572,276" o:spt="100" adj="0,,0" path="m,138r,l37572,138e">
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text-align:left;margin-left:185.5pt;margin-top:114.5pt;width:70.45pt;height:95.05pt;
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mso-position-vertical-relative:page' coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="100"
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<v:path o:connecttype="segments" textboxrect="3163,3163,18437,18437"/>
<w:wrap anchorx="page" anchory="page"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 55px; left: 0px; margin-left: 247px; margin-top: 153px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 31px; z-index: -1;"><img height="55" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.gif" v:shapes="WS_polygon61" width="31" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.0pt; position: relative; top: -1.0pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mentol<span>
</span>merupakan<span> </span>senyawa<span> </span>seperti<span>
</span>lilin,<span> </span>bahan<span> </span>seperti<span>
</span>kristal,<span> </span>bening dan putih
warnanya, yang berbentuk padat dalam suhu ruangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>11.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Butilbutirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_11" o:spid="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:167.25pt;height:57pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image022.png"
o:title="butilbutirat"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="76" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="223" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar:
Rumus Struktur Butilbutirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.05pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.5pt; position: relative; top: -1.5pt;">Rumus</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-text-raise: 1.5pt; position: relative; top: -1.5pt;">molekul:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>16</sub>O<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Digunakan<span>
</span>dalam<span> </span>pemanis<span> </span>buatan<span>
</span>untuk<span> </span>membuat<span> </span>rasa<span>
</span>manis<span> </span>buah terutama<span> </span>nanas. Ini juga terdapat dalam berbagai
buah-buahan seperti apel, pisang, dan strawberry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan
Zat Penyedap Rasa Kimia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium
Glutamat (MSG)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MSG dibuat melalui proses fermentasi dari tetes gula
(molases) oleh bakteri (Brevibacterium lactofermentum). Dalam proses fermentasi
ini, pertama-tama akan dihasilkan asam glutamat. Asam glutamat yang terjadi
dari proses fermentasi ini, kemudian ditambah soda (Sodium Carbonate), sehingga
akan terbentuk monosodium glutamat (MSG). MSG yang terjadi ini, kemudian
dimurnikan dan dikristalisasi, sehingga merupakan serbuk kristal murni, yang
siap dijual di pasar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam asetat diproduksi secara sintesis maupun secara
alami melalui fermentasi bakteri. Sekarang hanya 10% dari produksi asam asetat
dihasilkan melalui jalur alami,<span>
</span>namun<span> </span>kebanyakan<span> </span>hukum<span>
</span>yang<span> </span>mengatur<span> </span>bahwa<span>
</span>asetat<span> </span>yang<span> </span>terdapat dalam<span> </span>cuka<span>
</span>haruslah<span> </span>berasal<span> </span>dari biologis.<span> </span>Dari<span>
</span>asam<span> </span>asetat<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>diproduksi oleh<span> </span>industri<span> </span>kimia,<span>
</span>75% diantaranya<span> </span>diproduksi<span> </span>melalui<span>
</span>karbonilasi<span> </span>metanol.
Sisanya dihasilkan melalui metode-metode alternatif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Sitrat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam<span>
</span>proses<span> </span>produksi<span> </span>asam<span>
</span>sitrat<span> </span>yang <span> </span>sampai<span>
</span>saat<span> </span><span> </span>ini<span>
</span>lazim digunakan, biakan<span>
</span>kapang<span> </span>Aspergillus<span> </span>niger<span>
</span>diberi<span> </span>sukrosa<span> </span>agar<span>
</span>membentuk asam<span> </span>sitrat. Setelah<span> </span>kapang<span>
</span>disaring<span> </span>dari<span> </span>larutan<span>
</span>yang<span> </span>dihasilkan,<span> </span>asam sitrat<span>
</span>diisolasi dengan<span> </span>cara<span> </span>mengendapkannya<span> </span>dengan<span>
</span>kalsium<span> </span>hidroksida<span> </span>membentuk<span>
</span>garam kalsium<span> </span> sitrat. Asam
sitrat di-regenerasi-kan dari kalsium sitrat dengan penambahan asam sulfat.
Cara lain pengisolasian asam sitrat dari <span> </span>hasil
fermentasi adalah dengan ekstraksi menggunakan larutan hidrokarbon senyawa basa
organic trilaurilamina yang diikuti dengan re-ekstraksi dari larutan organic tersebut
dengan air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam
Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan asam butirat dengan<span> </span>mengocok<span>
</span>dan<span> </span>mengguncangkan<span> </span>krim<span>
</span>susu hingga tercapai keadaan semipadat. Margarin umumnya dibuat dari
minyak nabati. Kedua<span> </span>jenis<span> </span>bahan<span>
</span>pangan<span> </span>ini<span> </span>merupakan emulsi<span> </span>dengan<span>
</span>tipe <span> </span>yang<span> </span>sama, yaitu fase<span> </span>air<span>
</span>yang<span> </span>berada<span> </span>dalam<span>
</span>fase<span> </span>minyak (water<span> </span>in<span>
</span>oil).<span> </span>Air<span> </span>dan<span>
</span>minyak merupakan<span> </span>cairan<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>tidak<span> </span>saling<span> </span>berbaur<span>
</span>karena<span> </span>memiliki berat<span> </span>jenis<span>
</span>yang berbeda. Untuk menjaga agar butiran minyak tetap tersuspensi<span> </span>di dalam air, pada mentega dan margarine
diperlukan suatu<span> </span>zat<span> </span>pengemulsi<span>
</span>(emulsifier). Bahan yang dapat berperan sebagai pengemulsi antara lain
kuning telur, kasein, albumin,<span> </span>atau<span> </span>lesitin.<span>
</span>Daya<span> </span>kerja<span> </span>emulsifier<span>
</span>didukung<span> </span>oleh<span> </span>bentuk<span>
</span>molekulnya yang<span> </span>dapat<span> </span>terikat <span> </span>pada<span>
</span>minyak<span> </span>maupun<span> </span>air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut Jurnal American Chemical Society, kebanyakan
kopi yang dibuat dengan<span> </span>kadar kafein
rendah dibuat dengan larutan kimia<span> </span>yang
dapat menyerap kafein dari biji<span> </span>kimia.
Atau dapat pula menggunakan tehnik “Swiss Water Process” yaitu menggunakan air
panas dan uap untuk memisahkan kafein dari biji kopi. Selain<span> </span>itu<span>
</span>saat ini sedang diteliti pemanfaatan bioteknologi untuk
penghancuran<span> </span>kafein<span> </span>dalam tanaman<span>
</span>kopi,<span> </span>salah<span> </span>satunya<span>
</span>adalah<span> </span>penggunaan bakteri<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>dipasangkan<span> </span>dengan<span> </span>theophylline,<span>
</span>yaitu<span> </span>senyawa<span> </span>yang<span>
</span>dihasilkan untuk merusak kafein pada<span>
</span>tanaman kopi dan teh. Diharapkan bakteri ini dapat menghancurkan<span> </span>kafein<span>
</span>secara<span> </span>cepat,<span> </span>tetapi<span>
</span>tetap<span> </span>mempertahankan<span> </span>rasa<span>
</span>alami kopi yang nikmat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Isoamil asetat merupakan ester yang dibentuk dari
reaksi antara isoamil alcohol dan asam asetat dengan katalis asam sulfat. Asam
ini dinetralkan, diekstrak, dan hasilnya<span>
</span>dicuci<span> </span>dan<span> </span>kemudian<span>
</span>didistilasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Amil
Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa amil asetat merupakan senyawa ester hasil
kondensasi dari asam asetat dengan 1-pentanol. Padahal ester dibentuk dari
isomer pentanol yang lain (amil alkohol) atau campuran dari beberapa pentanol
yang sering menunjukkan sebagai amil asetat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asetaldehida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa ini dihasilkan oleh tumbuhan<span> </span>dalam metabolism normalnya. Asetaldehida
juga merupakan zat antara dalam produksi asam asetat, beberapa ester, dan zat-zat
kimia lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menthol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menthol<span>
</span>merupakan<span> </span>komponen<span> </span>bahan<span>
</span>sintesis<span> </span>organik<span> </span>yang terdapat dalam daun mint dan mint oil. Mentha
arvensis adalah spesies utama<span> </span>dari mint
yang digunakan untuk membuat kristak mentol alami. Species ini adalah tumbuhan pokok
yang utama tumbuh di Uttar Pradesh daerah India.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Butil Butirat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Butil butirat merupakan komponen organic yang
dibentuk dari kondensasi asam butirat dan butanol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak
Zat Penyedap Rasa bagi Tubuh Manusia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Monosodium
Glutamat (MSG)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurunnya
fungsi otak, Ketika sel-sel neuron di otak menerima senyawa Monosodium Glutamat
(MSG), mereka menjadi sangat bergairah dan meningkatkan impulsnya sampai pada
tingkat kelelahan yang sangat tinggi. Tapi, beberapa jam kemudian neuron-neuron
tersebut mati seakan-akan bergairah untuk mati. Jika banyak sel neuron yang
mati, maka fungsi otak pun bisa menurun, yang tentunya sangat berbahaya bagi
perkembangan otak, terutama anak-anak. Dalam suatu percobaan, anak-anak yang
mengonsumsi sup mengandung MSG dan meminum Nutrasweet (soft drink) darahnya
akan mempunyai tingkat excitotoxin (keracunan) enam kali lebih besar dari
excitotoxin yang menghancurkan hypothalamus neuron pada bayi tikus.Jadi , MSG
dapat menyebabkan menurunnya fungsi otak dan semakin muda anak yang mengonsumsi
MSG, semakin besar bahaya yang dapat ditimbulkan MSG pada otak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">kanker,
MSG dapat menyebabkan kanker karena Glutamat dapat membentuk pirolisis akibat
pemanasan dengan suhu tinggi dan dalam waktu lama. pirolisis ini sangat
karsinogenik. Padahal masakan protein lain yang tidak ditambah MSG pun, bisa
juga membentuk senyawa karsinogenik bila dipanaskan dengan suhu tinggi dan
dalam waktu yang lama. Karena asam amino penyusun protein, seperti triptopan,
penilalanin, lisin, dan metionin juga dapat mengalami pirolisis dari penelitian
tadi jelas cara memasak amat berpengaruh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Alergi,
MSG tidak mempunyai potensi untuk mengancam kesehatan masyarakat umum, tetapi
juga bahwa reaksi hypersensitif atau alergi akibat mengkonsumsi MSG memang
dapat terjadi pada sebagian kecil sekali dari konsumen. Beberapa peneliti
bahkan cenderung berpendapat nampaknya glutamat bukan merupakan senyawa
penyebab yang efektif, tetapi besar kemungkinannya gejala tersebut ditimbulkan
oleh senyawa hasil metabolisme seperti misalnya GABA (Gama Amino Butyric Acid),
serotinin atau bahkan oleh histamine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hipertensi,
Kandungan natrium di dalam MSG beserta sifat adiktif yang ada pada MSG, dan
sebagai salah satu penyebab hipertensi (tekanan darah tinggi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Obesitas,
MSG mengganggu hubungan endokrin antara meta<span>
</span>thermoregulatory modulators<span>
</span>(neuropeptida dan leptin) dan brown fat. MSG mengurangi thermogenicity
brom fat sambil menekan asupan makanan. Artinya, MSG berpotensi menyebabkan
obesitas bahkan ketika seseorang mengurangi asupan makanan sekalipun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>f.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kerusakan
Retina, Retina adalah suatu lapisan pada mata yang berfungsi menerima cahaya
sebelum diteruskan ke otak untuk diterjemahkan sebagai suatu objek penglihatan.
Berbagai studi telah dilakukan tentang kerusakan retina akibat penggunaan MSG.
MSG dalam dosis tertentu diketahui dapat merusak neuron-neuron (sel-sel saraf)
pada lapisan dalam retina mata.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>g.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kerusakan
hipotalamus dan struktur otak lain, sakit kepala (magrain) memperberat keadaan
autisme dan hiperaktifitas, memperberat serangan asma, dan menimbulkan alergi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>h.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Diabetes,
Glutamat melakukan ikatan dengan reseptornya di dalam pankreas. Akibatnya,
pankreas akan memproduksi insulin lebih banyak dari biasanya. Dengan dipacunya
produksi insulin, otomatis perombakan kadar gula dalam darah mengalami
peningkatan. “Itulah yang membuat glutamat bisa sebagai salah satu faktor
penyebab diabetes”. Pankreas yang mendapat perlakuan dengan glutamat
mengeluarkan insulin lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan biakan pankreas yang
tanpa glutamat. Inilah yang membuat kelenjar pankreas makin lama mengalami
kerusakan. Dalam keadaan normal, peningkatan insulin berkaitan erat dengan
melonjaknya kadar gula dalam darah. Gula yang berlebih itu, dengan bantuan
insulin, akan dirombak menjadi energi yang kemudian disimpan dalam jaringan
tubuh seperti otot, jaringan lemak, dan hati. Peneliti tersebut menemukan bahwa
efek dari glutamat itu lebih nyata bila dibarengi tingginya kadar gula. Namun,
dalam kadar gula yang rendah pun, pengeluaran insulin masih terus berlangsung
jika kelebihan glutamat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>i.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kadar kolesterol tinggi tidak selalu
berdampak buruk bagi kesehatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>j.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">asam sitrat kering ataupun larutan asam
sitrat pekat dapat menyebabkan iritasi kulit dan mata.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>k.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Konsumsi<span> </span>kafein<span>
</span>secara berlebihan<span> </span>dapat
menimbulkan berbagai masalah, seperti warna gigi yang berubah menjadi coklat
atau gelap, bau mulut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>l.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kafein dapat memicu munculnya serangan
sakit kepala migren pada individu yang rentan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Alternatif
Bahan Penyedap Rasa Alami<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain MSG, vitsin atau micin, anda bisa mencoba
menggantinya menggunakan bahan-bahan alami lainnya seperti:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bawang
putih<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Memarkan bawang putih yang telah dikupas, dan tumis
dengan sedikit minyak hingga layu, sebelum memasukkan bahan-bahan lainnya.
Bawang putih juga bisa dihaluskan, kemudian ditumis agar lebih merata dengan
bahan lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Udang,
teri atau ebi<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Makanan laut memiliki ‘vetsin’ alami dalam tubuhnya,
menghasilkan rasa gurih dan nikmat baik ketika dimasak sendiri ataupun
dicampurkan ke dalam bahan lain. Untuk udang, teri atau ebi kering, bisa
mengeringkannya dengan oven, kemudian menggerusnya dengan food processor untuk
mengubah bentuknya menjadi bubuk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kaldu
ayam atau sapi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kaldu dari ayam atau sapi paling pas untuk semua
masakan, bisa menggunakan tulang belulang atau daging yang direbus dalam air
mendidih selama beberapa waktu untuk membuat kaldu ini. Tambahkan juga beberapa
sayuran dan rempah agar kaldu semakin lezat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gula
pasir<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sudah bukan rahasia jika gula pasir bisa menjadi
pengganti MSG. Tambahkan sedikit saja gula pasir ke dalam masakan, maka rasa
gurih masakan justru akan keluar. Jangan terlalu banyak ya, agar masakan tidak
menjadi manis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sosis
sapi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ada kaldu dan tidak mau repot dengan daging
mentah, bisa menggunakan sosis sapi. Iris tipis-tipis dan campurkan ke dalam
masakan anda. Sosis sendiri sudah mengandung garam, kaldu sapi dan juga sedikit
MSG, sehingga bisa menambah cita rasa masakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR
PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rahardian,
Putri. 2010. <i>Jurnal Penelitian Penyedap
Rasa dan Aroma. </i>Surabaya : Universitas Negeri Surabaya. tidak di terbitkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span> </span><a href="http://anaa-ziiyah.blogspot.com/2012/04/makalah-hubungan-pengaruh-msg-terhadap.html"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">http://anaa-ziiyah.blogspot.com/2012/04/makalah-hubungan-pengaruh-msg-terhadap.html</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://andre4088.blogspot.com/2012/01/btp-penyedap-rasa-dan-aroma-penguat.html"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://andre4088.blogspot.com/2012/01/btp-penyedap-rasa-dan-aroma-penguat.html</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-90853649447496385462012-10-01T07:54:00.005-07:002012-10-01T07:54:17.627-07:00tetrasiklin<br />
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<b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR-CA;">MAKALAH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ANTIBIOTIK TETRASIKLIN <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Diajukan
Untuk Memenuhi Salah Satu Tugas </span><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FR-CA;">Pada
Mata Kuliah </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kimia Organik Bahan Alam Pada Semester
Genap<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Oleh:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kimia
B / VI<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">JURUSAN PENDIDIKAN KIMIA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">FAKULTAS TARBIYAH DAN KEGURUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGERI SUNAN GUNUNG
DJATI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">BANDUNG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">2012 H/ 1434 M</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br clear="all" />
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ANTIBIOTIK TETRASIKLIN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN
DAN ASAL USUL TETRASIKLIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI">Tetrasiklin
pertama kali ditemukan oleh Lloyd Conover. Berita tentang Tetrasiklin yang
dipatenkan pertama kali tahun 1955. Tetrasiklin merupakan antibiotika yang
memberi harapan dan sudah terbukti menjadi salah satu penemuan antibiotika
penting</span><span lang="IN">. </span>A<span lang="IN">n</span><span lang="FI">tibiotik golongan tetrasiklin yang pertama ditemukan adalah klortetrasiklin
yang dihasilkan oleh <i>Streptomyces
aureofaciens</i>. Kemudian ditemukan oksitetrasiklin dari <i>Streptomyces rimosus. </i>Tetrasiklin sendiri dibuat secara
semisintetik dari klortetrasiklin, tetapi juga dapat diperoleh dari spesies <i>Streptomyces</i> lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="google-src-text1"><span lang="IN">P</span></span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&sl=en&u=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/2516080.pdf&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dtetracycline%2Bis%26hl%3Did%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3DOZH%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:id:official&rurl=translate.google.co.id&usg=ALkJrhgE6E42BDMTgQ1s2qw2vk4OHmz1tQ"><span lang="FI" style="display: none; mso-ansi-language: FI; mso-hide: all;">[1]</span></a><span class="google-src-text1"><span lang="FI"> protection
for its fermentation and production was also first issued in 1950.</span></span><span class="google-src-text1"><span lang="IN">P</span></span>ada
tahun 1950, Profesor Harvard Robert Woodward menentukan struktur kimia
Terramycin, nama merek untuk anggota keluarga tetrasiklin; paten perlindungan
untuk fermentasi dan produksi juga pertama kali diterbitkan pada tahun 1950. <span class="google-src-text1">A research team of seven scientists at </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&sl=en&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dtetracycline%2Bis%26hl%3Did%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3DOZH%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:id:official&rurl=translate.google.co.id&usg=ALkJrhizQp7HyPbptOS7pa3419eR5kLBbw" title="Pfizer"><span style="display: none; mso-hide: all;">Pfizer</span></a><span class="google-src-text1"> </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&sl=en&u=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3931295&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dtetracycline%2Bis%26hl%3Did%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3DOZH%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:id:official&rurl=translate.google.co.id&usg=ALkJrhhZCDFQEMDmljkew5ge7GC1fUBJdQ"><span style="display: none; mso-hide: all;">[2]</span></a><span class="google-src-text1"> ,
in collaboration with Woodward, participated in the two-year research leading
to the discovery </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&sl=en&u=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ja01118a001&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dtetracycline%2Bis%26hl%3Did%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3DOZH%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:id:official&rurl=translate.google.co.id&usg=ALkJrhgdjxI6IvCGO5ZFtEQ_-ySNCMbwUA"><span style="display: none; mso-hide: all;">[3]</span></a><span class="google-src-text1"> .</span>
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<span lang="IN">Alasan mengapa
disebut tetrasiklin karena terdiri dari 4 ("tetra-") <a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en|id&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon&usg=ALkJrhjueGjsAN6oI1tGi74b5nNpxXJCpg">hidrokarbon</a>
cincin ("-cycl-") derivasi ("-ine“) yang merupakan subclass dari
<a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en|id&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyketides&usg=ALkJrhiqce7YeFf47vTDZ15rCyfsQ_ylow">poliketida</a>
yang memiliki kerangka octahydrotetracene-2-karboksamida. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">STRUKTUR
MOLEKUL TETRASIKLIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa-senyawa
yang termasuk kelompok tetrasiklin mempunyai kerangka dasar karbon dari
naftasen C-<sub>18</sub> yang terhidrogenasi secara parsial, oleh karena itu
disebut juga kerangka hidronaftasen. Beberapa senyawa yang termasuk kelompok
tetrasiklin tercantum pada gambar berikut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;">Struktur kimia golongan tetrasiklin</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Nama
senyawa<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">6-Deoksi-6-dimetiltetrasiklin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">OH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.7pt;" valign="top" width="42">
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 247.5pt;" valign="top" width="330">
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">6-dimetiltetrasiklin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.55pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.95pt;" valign="top" width="43">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">OH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 34.7pt;" valign="top" width="46">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">CH3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.7pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 247.5pt;" valign="top" width="330">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrasiklin (akromisin)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.55pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.95pt;" valign="top" width="43">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">OH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 34.7pt;" valign="top" width="46">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.7pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 247.5pt;" valign="top" width="330">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">7-kloro-6- dimetiltetrasiklin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.55pt;" valign="top" width="38">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.95pt;" valign="top" width="43">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">OH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 34.7pt;" valign="top" width="46">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">CH3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.7pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">OH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 247.5pt;" valign="top" width="330">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">5-hidroksitetrasiklin
(oksi-tetrasiklin, teramisin)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.55pt;" valign="top" width="38">
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cl<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.95pt;" valign="top" width="43">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">OH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 34.7pt;" valign="top" width="46">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">CH3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.7pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">H<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 247.5pt;" valign="top" width="330">
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">7-klorotetrasiklin
(klor-tetrasiklin, aureomisin)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;">Tetrasiklin adalah zat anti mikroba yang diperolah denga cara deklorrinasi
klortetrasiklina, reduksi oksitetrasiklina, atau denga fermentasi. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrasiklin
merupakan basa yang sukar larut dalam air, tetapi bentuk garam natrium atau
garam HClnya mudah larut. </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;">Dalam
keadaan kering, bentuk basa dan garam HCl tetrasiklin bersifat relatif stabil.
Dalam larutan, kebanyakan tetrasiklin sangat labil sehingga cepat berkurang
potensinya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;">Di antara senyawa-senyawa tetrasiklin tersebut di atas, yang termasuk
tetrasiklin alam ialah tetrasiklin atau akromisin, oksitetrasiklin atau
teramisin dan klortetrasiklin atau auromisin. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sedangkan
6-dimetiltetrasiklin dan 7-kloro-6-dimetiltetrasiklin kedua-duanya dihasilkan
oleh turunan mikroba yang semula berasal dari <i>Streptomyces Aureus</i>. Kedua senyawa yang terakhir ini sangat sukar
diuraikan baik oleh asam maupun basa, sehingga berguna untuk pengobatan secara
oral. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari struktur
senyawa-senyawa tetrasiklin seperti tertera pada gambar di atas, terlihat bahwa
perbedaan antara tetrasiklin, klortetrasiklin dan oksitetrasiklin masing-masing
terletak pada adanya atom klor pada C-7 (cincin D) dan gugus hidroksi pada C-4
(cincin A) dari kerangka hidronaftasen.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;"><span> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BIOSINTESIS
DAN <span> </span>REAKSI-REAKSI POKOK TETRASIKLIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Tetrasiklin adalah senyawa-senyawa yang termasuk golongan poliketida.
Percobaan-percobaan menunjukkan bahwa tertrasiklin berasal dari delapan unit
malonil-koenzim A, seperti ditunjukkan oleh </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">g</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ambar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Sebagaimana ditunjukkan oleh gambar, malonamoil-koenzim A
bertindak sebagai inisiator untuk polimerisasi delapan molekul malonil-koenzim
A menghasilkan suatu poliketida-amida yang linier. Poliketida-amida ini
selanjutnya direka menghasilkan tetrasiklin, melalui serentetan reaksi
sederhana dan berlangsung secara bertahap. Melalui rangkaian reaksi ini,
dihasilkan senyawa-senyawa antara yang utama, seperti pret etramid dan
6-metilpretetramid, yang mengandung semua atom karbon yang diperlukan pada
hasil-hasil akhir.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Tetrasiklin dari deret 6-dimetil, seperti 6-demetiltetrasiklin
dan 7-kloro-6-deametiltetrasiklin, diturunkan dari pretetramid. Sedangkan,
tetrasiklin, deret 7-klorotetrasiklin, dan deret 5-hidrositetrasiklin
diturunkan dari 6-metilpretetramid. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Biosintesis tetrasiklin bermula dari karboksilasi asetil-KoA
membentuk malonil-KoA dengan enzim asetil-KoA karboksilase. Malonil-KoA
kemudian bereaksi dengan 2-oksosuksinamat menghasilkan malonamoil-KoA.
2-oksosuksinamat merupakan hasil dari transaminasi asparagin dengan enzim asam
okso-asparagin transaminase. Malonamoil-KoA kemudian dikonversi lebih lanjut
menjadi 4-hidroksi-6-metilpretetramida melalui 6-metilpretetramida. Senyawa
inilah yang akan diubah menjadi 4-dedimethylamino-4-okso-anhidrotetrasiklin,
yang merupakan intermediat<span> </span>dalam
menghasilkan klorotetrasiklin dan tetrasiklin. Reaksi dapat dilihat pada
gambar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SIFAT
, FUNGSI DAN MEKANISME KERJA TETRASIKLIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Sifat kimiawi tetrasiklin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Tetrasiklin
merupakan basa yang sukar larut dalam air, tetapi bentuk garam natrium atau
garam HCl</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">-</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;">nya mudah larut. </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;">Dalam keadaan
kering, bentuk basa dan garam HCl tetrasiklin bersifat relatif stabil. Dalam
larutan, kebanyakan tetrasiklin sangat labil sehingga cepat berkurang
potensinya</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. Golongan tetrasiklin adalah suatu
senyawa yang bersifat amfoter sehingga dapat membentuk garam baik dengan asam
maupun basa. Sifat basa tetrasiklin disebabkan oleh adanya radikal dimetilamino
yang terdapat didalam struktur kimia tetrasiklin, sedangkan sifat asamnya
disebabkan oleh adanya radikal hidroksi fenolik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tetrasiklin harus disimpan di tempat yang
kering, terlindung dari cahaya. Tetrasiklin apabila bereaksi dengan logam
bervalensi 2 dan 3 (Ca, Mg, Fe ) maka akan membentuk kompleks yang inaktif
sehingga tetrasiklin tidak boleh diminum bersama dengan susu dan obat-obat
antasida.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Obat ini dalam bentuk kering bersifat
stabil, tidak demikian halnya bila antibiotika ini berada dalam larutan air.
Untuk tetrasiklin sediaan basah perlu ditambahkan buffer. Dalam larutan
tetrasiklin yang biasa digunakan untuk injeksi mengandung buffer dengan pelarut
propylen glikol pada pH 7,5, dapat tahan 1 tahun pada suhu kamar sampai 45˚C.
Bila pH lebih tinggi dari 7,5 maka tingkat kestabilan tetrasiklin akan menurun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Kegunaan Tetrasiklin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegunaan
klinis tetrasiklin dalam kedokteran hewan yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hewan
kecil<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrasiklin
digunakan untuk mengatasi berbagai infeksi yang disebabkan oleh kuman gram
positif maupun gram negatif, terutama pada penyakit saluran pernafasan,
perkencingan, leptospirosis (penyakit manusia<span>
</span>dan hewan dari kuman dan disebabkan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">kuman
Leptospira yang ditemukan dalam air seni dan sel-sel hewan yang terkena), dan
panleukopenia (</span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="IN" style="color: #222222; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">penyakit yang
menyebabkan jumlah sel darah putih kucing menurun dengan drastis)</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hewan
besar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Antibiotika
ini hampir selalu diberikan untuk mengatasi berbagai penyakit pada hewan besar,
hal ini mungkin disebabkan karena sifat obat yang mempunyai spectrum luas.
Dalam kasus lapangan antibiotika ini biasa digunakan untuk mengatasi
penyakit-penyakit seperti metritis, pneumonia, mastitis, enteritis,
leptospirosis, shipping fever, listeriosis, anaplasmosis, penyakit jembrana dan
antraks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk babi</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dapat
digunakan untu mengatasi penyakit seperti radang usus, paru, dan lain-lain.
Dalam dosis rendah klortetrasiklin juga ditemukan tercampur dalam pakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk unggas<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">biasa
digunakan untuk mengatasi penyakit pada unggas seperti CRD, sinusitis, infeksi
PPLO dan erysipelas. Dalam banyak pakan ayam juga ditemukan kadar tetrasiklin
dengan dosis rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penggunaan topikal</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrasiklin
digunakan untuk mengatasi radang infeksi pada kulit, biasanya sediaan
tetrasiklin dikemas dalam bentuk salep 1%. Dapat digunakan untuk mengobati
penyakit mata seperti opthalmik, selain itu dapat juga digunakan untuk
mengatasi pink eye.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Mekanisme Kerja Tetrasiklin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrasiklin bersifat bakteriostatik
dengan jalan menghambat sintesis protein. Hal ini dilakukan dengan cara
mengikat unit ribosoma sel kuman 30 S </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">sehingga
t-RNA tidak menempel pada ribosom yang mengakibatkan tidak</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
terbentuknya amino asetil RNA. Antibiotik ini dilaporkan juga berperan dalam
mengikat ion Fe dan Mg. Meskipun tetrasiklin dapat menembus sel mamalia namun
pada umumnya tidak menyebabkan keracunan pada individu yang menerimanya.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ada</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
2 proses masuknya antibiotik ke dalam ribosom bakteri gram negatif; pertama
yang disebut difusi pasif melalui kanal hidrofilik, kedua ialah sistem
transport aktif. Setelah masuk maka antibiotik berikatan dengan ribosom 30S dan
menghalangi masuknya tRNA-asam amino pada lokasi asam amino.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Efek
Antimikroba<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada umumnya spektrum golongan
tetrasiklin sama (sebab mekanismenya sama), namun terdap</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">a</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">t perbedaan kuantitatif
dan aktivitas masing-masing d</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">e</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">rivat
terhadap kuman tertentu. Hanya mikroba yang cepat membelah yang dipengaruhi
obat ini. Golongan tetrasiklin termasuk antibiotik yang terutama bersifat
bakteriostatik dan bekerja dengan jalan menghambat sintesis protein kuman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Farmakokinetik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Absorpsi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sekitar 30-80% tetrasiklin diserap dalam
salura</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">n</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> cerna. Doksisiklin dan
minosiklin </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">d</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">iserap
lebih dari 90%. Absorpsi sebagian besar berlangsung di lambung dan usus halus.
Adanya makanan dalam lambung menghambat penyerapan, kecuali minosiklin dan
doksisiklin. Absorpsi dihambat dalam derajat tertentu oleh pH tinggi dan
pembentukan kelat yaitu kompleks tetrasiklin dengan suatu zat lain yang sukar
diserap seperti aluminium hidroksid, garam kalsium dan magnesium yang biasanya
terdapat dalam antasida, dan juga ferum. Tetrasiklin diberikan sebelum makan
atau 2 jam sesudah makan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Distribusi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam plasma semua jenis tetrasiklin
terikat oleh protein plasma dalam jumlah yang bervariasi. Dalam cairan
cerebrospinal (CSS) kadar golongan tetrasiklin hanya 10-20% kadar dalam serum.
Penetrasi ke CSS ini tidak tergantung dari adanya meningitis. Penetrasi ke
cairan tubuh lain dan jaringan tubuh cukup baik. Obat golongan ini ditimbun di
hati, limpa dan sumssum tulang serta di sentin dan email gigi yang belum
bererupsi. Golongan tetrasiklin menembus sawar uri dan terdapat dalam ASI dalam
kadar yang relatif tinggi. Dibandingkan dengan tetrasiklin lainnya, doksisiklin
dan minosiklin daya penetrasinya ke jaringan lebih baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ekskresi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Golongan tetrasiklin diekskresi melalui
urin dengan filtrasi glomerolus dan melalui empedu. Pemberiaan per oral
kira-kira 20-55% golongan tetrasiklin diekskresi melalui urin. Golongan
tetrasiklin yang diekskresi oleh hati ke dalam empedu mencapai kadar 10 kali
kadar dalam serum. Sebagian besar obat yang diekskresi ke dalam lumen usus ini
mengalami sirkulasi enterohepatik; maka obat ini masih terdapat dalam darah
untuk waktu lama setelah terapi dihentikan. Bila terjadi obstruksi pada saluran
empedu atau gangguan faal hati obat ini akan mengalami kumulasi dalam darah.
Obat yang tidak diserap diekskresi melalui tinja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">REAKSI-REAKSI
PENENTUAN STRUKTUR OKSITETRASIKLIN <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penetapan
struktur senyawa-senyawa tetrasiklin dilakukan dengan penguraian dengan proses
bertahap.<b> </b>Kerangka dasar karbon dari oksi tetrasiklin adalah nafsasen,
sedangkan posisi masing-masing substituen dalam kerangka karbon tersebut dapat
diketahui dari jenis hasil-hasil penguraian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berikut adalah
beberapa reaksi pokok penetapan struktur oksitetrasiklin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="mso-ignore: vglayout; position: relative; z-index: 3;"><span style="height: 713px; left: -44px; position: absolute; top: -54px; width: 672px;"><img height="713" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="Object_x0020_1" width="672" /></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Sumber
: Arifin, 1985</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SINTESA
TETRASIKLIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Struktur molekul senyawa-senyawa
tetrasiklin bukanlah tergolong sederhana, oleh karena itu sintesa tetrasiklin
melibatkan berbagai jenis reaksi organik. Kesulitan utama dalam mensintesa
molekul tetrasiklin yaitu terletak pada cincin A. Hal ini dikarenakan pada
setiap atom karbon dari cincin ini mengandung sedikitnya satu subtituen.
Disamping itu, tiga dari enam atom karbon asimetri dalam molekul tetrasiklin
yang paling banyak tersubtitusi, seperti oksitetrasiklin terdapat juga pada
cincin A. Sehingga untuk menghasilkan satu isomer optic yang aktif, bebas dari
isomer-isomer lainnya memerlukan pendekatan yang berhati-hati. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sintesa tetrasiklin dimulai dengan
sintesa suatu senyawa antara trisiklik yang sudah mengandung cincin B, C, dan D
dari molekul tetrasiklin dengan menggunakan reaksi Diels Alder. Sintesa ini
diikuti oleh pengubahan-pengubahan terhadap gugus-gugus fungsi menghasilkan
suatu senyawa antara baru, yaitu suatu diendiolon. Dimana senyawa antara
diendiolon ini dapat dimodifikasi unsur-unsur yang diperlukan untuk membentuk
cincin A dalam molekul tetrasiklin. Reaksi-reaksi pokok sintesa tetrasiklin
tertera pada gamabar dibawah ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">EFEK SAMPING
TETRASIKLIN <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Efek
samping dalam penggunaan tetrasiklin diantaranya yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perusakan
warna pada gigi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tetrasiklin
mengandung gugus-gugus hidroksil, dimana gugus tersebut akan membentuk ikatan
bila dikombinasikan dengan Ca<sup>++</sup> sebagai unsur-unsur pembentuk gigi.
Tetrasiklin dapat mengikat kalsium secara irreversible, kemudian berikatan
dengan kristal hidroksiapatit baik di dentin maupun enamel. Juga, mempunyai
kemampuan membentuk kompleks atau ikatan dengan kristal hidroksiapatit dalam
gigi sehingga mengakibatkan terbentuknya senyawa <i>orthocalcium phosphat complex</i>
yang tertimbun pada gigi dan menyebabkan perubahan warna pada gigi. Dentin
ditunjukkan sebagai jaringan yang paling sulit untuk berubah warna daripada
enamel jika melalui plasenta.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Jordan dkk
membagi keparahan perubahan warna ke dalam 3 bagian yaitu : ringan, sedang,
berat. Perubahan warna ringan digambarkan berwarna kuning terang yang merata
hampir di seluruh permukaan gigi. Perubahan warna sedang digambarkan berwarna
kuning gelap atau hampir keabu-abuan. Sedangkan perubahan warna berat
digambarkan dengan keadaan gigi yang berwarna abu-abu gelap, ungu atau biru
dengan adanya bentuk cincin pada bagian servikal gigi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ada beberapa
faktor yang dapat memicu terjadinya perubahan warna pada gigi. Faktor-faktor
tersebut antara lain struktur kimia dari senyawa tetrasiklin, dosis yang
digunakan, lamanya pemakaian dan masa pembentukan gigi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Faktor utama
penyebab dari perubahan warna pada gigi anak akibat tetrasiklin adalah
pemberian obat dalam masa pembentukan gigi, baik gigi sulung maupun gigi
permanen. Pada masa pembentukan gigi, struktur gigi yang sedang mengalami
kalsifikasi seperti kalsium akan diikat oleh tetrasiklin secara irreversible.
Kemudian ikatan tersebut mengikat hidroksi apatit dalam struktur gigi yang
sedang erupsi. Ikatan ini nantinya akan menetap pada dentin dan enamel sehingga
mengakibatkan perubahan warna pada gigi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merapuhkan gigi dan melubangi gigi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pemakaian
tetrasiklin yang terus-menerus menyebabkan email gigi tidak terbentuk sempurna,
dan permukaan gigi tidaklah halus dan rata. Gigi menjadi sulit dibersihkan, dan
plak menempel dengan kuat sehingga gigi mudah berlubang.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Gangguan
pencernaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gangguan
saluran pencernaan merupakan yang sering terjadi. Diantaranya seperti mual,
muntah, diare, nyeri menelan , iritasi kerongkongan. Efek samping yang jarang
terjadi termasuk : kerusakan hati, pankreatitis, gangguan darah, fotosensitif,
reaksi hipersensitif (ruam, dermatitis eksfoliatif, sindrom steven-johnson,
urtikaria, angioedema, anafilaksis, carditis). Sakit kepala dan gangguan
penglihatan dapat terjadi dan dapat menjadi penanda peningkatan tekanan dalam
kepala dan segera hentikan pengobatan bila ini terjadi.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>H.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ANALISIS
JURNAL<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Judul: </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Evaluation
of Antibacterial Activity of Tetracycline and Cephalexine Decomposed by
Sunlight<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada beberapa faktor
yang masih belum diketahui mengenai tetrasiklin dan Sefaleksin di sekitar irak,
maka dilakukanlah studi mengenai pengaruh sinar matahari terhadap tetrasiklin
dan sefaleksin. Tetrasiklin dan </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">s</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">efaleksin
adalah suatu antibiotik yang sering sekali digunakan dalam bidang kedokteran
untuk mengobati adanya indikasi bakteri. Namun apabila terkena cahaya matahari
maka akan terjadi fotolisis, sehingga akan terdegradasi sebagai akibat dari
energi yang dihasilkan dari penyerapan cahaya matahari. Terdegradasinya senyawa
tersebut tergantung seberapa baik senyawa tersebut menyerap cahaya matahari. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Beberapa faktor yang
mempengaruhi terdegradasinya antibiotik ini adalah frekwensi dan intensitas t</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">umbu</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">kan molekul,
konsentrasi, dan pH. Selain itu yang harus diperhatikan adalah suhu, dan
kelembapan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan dari penelitian
ini adalah untuk mempelajari aktivitas antibiotik Tetrasiklin dan Sefaleksin
yang terkena sinar matahari kemudian digunakannya untuk melawan <i>E-coli</i>
dan <i>Staphylococcus sp</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrasiklin dan
Sefaleksin yang digunakan berasal dari SDI suatu perusahan di irak sedangkan <i>E-coli</i>
dan <i>Staphylococcus sp</i> didapatkan dari
rumah sakit Ibin Gazwan. Kapsul Tetrasiklin dan Sefaleksin dengan berat 250 mg
dilarutkan dalam 10 ml air suling kemudian diberikan perlakuan sinar matahari
di siang hari pada bulan April di selatan Irak (suhu sekitar tiga puluh lima)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hasil penelitian
membuktikan, bahwa<span> </span>efek dari Sinar
matahari UV<span> </span>mengubah senyawa antibiotik
menjadi jenis spesies berbeda yang tidak diketahui dan menimbulkan banyak
pertanyaan tentang produk yang terbentuk itu</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Apa senyawa ini adalah racun atau bukan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Daerah hambatan untuk
Tetracycline dan Sefaleksin pada spesies klinis <i>Staphylococcus Sp </i>dan <i>Escherichia
coli</i>. Hal ini menujukkan bahwa zona penghambatan senyawa antibiotik yang
terkena sinar matahari lebih kecil dibandingkan kontrol.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>I.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">AYAT
AL-QURAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>4</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>y</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>m</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>÷</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>&</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>u</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>y</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>7</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>/</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>u</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>n</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span><</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Î</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>)</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>È</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>@</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ø</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ª</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>[</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB3; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB3;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>#</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>È</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>b</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>&</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>É</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ª</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>B</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>#</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>z</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>`</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>B</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>É</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>A</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>6</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Å</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>g</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ø</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>:</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>#</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Y</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>?</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>q</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ã</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ç</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>/</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>z</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>`</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>B</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>u</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ì</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>y</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>f</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>¤</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>±</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>9</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>#</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>£</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>J</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>B</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>u</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>b</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>q</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ä</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>©</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ì</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>÷</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>è</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ç</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>Ñ</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>È</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span><span> </span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>§</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>N</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>è</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>O</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Í</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>?</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ä</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>.</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>`</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>B</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>È</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>e</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>@</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ä</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>.</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>N</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>º</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>y</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>J</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>¨</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>W</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>9</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>#</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Å</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>5</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>è</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>=</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ó</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>s</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>ù</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>@</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ç</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>7</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ß</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Å</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>7</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Î</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>n</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>/</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>u</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>W</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>x</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ä</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>9</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>è</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>4</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>ß</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>l</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ã</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ø</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>s</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>.</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>`</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>B</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>y</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>g</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>R</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>q</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ä</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>Ü</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ç</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>/</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ò</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>#</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>u</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>°</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>ì</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>#</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Î</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>=</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>F</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ø</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>C</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>¼</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ç</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>m</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ç</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>R</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>º</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>u</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>q</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ø</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>9</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>&</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>m</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>ù</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ö</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>ä</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>!</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>x</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>ÿ</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>©</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ä</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>¨</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>$</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>¨</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>Z</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>=</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>j</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>9</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>3</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span>
</span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>¨</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>b</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Î</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>)</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Î</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>û</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>y</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>7</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>9</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>º</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>s</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Z</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>p</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>U</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>y</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>5</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>Q</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ö</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>q</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>s</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>)</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>j</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>9</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>b</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>r</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>ã</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span></span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB4; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB4;"><span>©</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>3</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>x</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>ÿ</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB1; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB1;"><span>G</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB5; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB5;"><span>t</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span></span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span> </span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span>Ç</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>Ï</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>Ò</span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: HQPB2; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-symbol-font-family: HQPB2;"><span>È</span></span><span dir="RTL"></span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "\(normal text\)"; mso-hansi-font-family: "\(normal text\)";"><span dir="RTL"></span><span> </span></span><span dir="LTR" lang="IN" style="font-family: "(normal text)","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">68.<span>
</span>Dan Tuhanmu mewahyukan kepada lebah: "Buatlah sarang-sarang di
bukit-bukit, di pohon-pohon kayu, dan di tempat-tempat yang dibikin
manusia",<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">69.<span>
</span>Kemudian makanlah dari tiap-tiap (macam) buah-buahan dan tempuhlah jalan
Tuhanmu yang Telah dimudahkan (bagimu). dari perut lebah itu ke luar minuman
(madu) yang bermacam-macam warnanya, di dalamnya terdapat obat yang menyembuhkan
bagi manusia. Sesungguhnya pada yang demikian itu benar-benar terdapat tanda
(kebesaran Tuhan) bagi orang-orang yang memikirkan.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Q.S.
An-Nahl : 68-69<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Allah sudah mendesain semuanya dengan sempurna, bagaimana tidak Allah
menciptakan penyakit, tetapi Allah juga yang menyediakan obatnya. Dalam
Alqur’an dicantumkan kata madu yang dihasilkan dari lebah. Sebagaimana kita
ketahui fungsi madu adalah sebagai obat. </span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sejak lama madu dapat
digunakan sebagai obat pada bagian tubuh yang terluka. Karena manfaat madu ini
diyakini sejak dahulu sebagai obat paling mujarab sebagai penyembuh luka di
luar tubuh manusia. Dalam suatu riset ditemukan bahwa orang-orang yang
menggunakan madu untuk mengobati luka dengan cara menaruh madu dalam pembalut
luka, memiliki tingkat kesembuhan luka 1/4 kali lebih cepat daripada
orang-orang yang hanya memakai metode pengobatan standar biasa. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Mark Stengler berpendapat bahwa madu mempunyai efek anti peradangan
alami yang berguna untuk menyembuhkan luka dengan lebih cepat. Selain itu, madu
juga mengandung zat '<i>fitokimia'</i>, yaitu zat-zat kimia alami yang terdapat
pada beberapa jenis tumbuh-tumbuhan dan bahan makanan. Fitokimia ini berfungsi
untuk membunuh virus, bakteri, dan jamur. Ini menandakan Al-Qur’an sudah lebih dahulu
menunjukkan kepada kita bahwa madu berguna sebagai obat. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Selamanya Al-Qur’an adalah petunjuk, bagi orang yang
bertakwa. Jika ingin sehat amalkanlah apa yang terdapat dalam Al-Qur’an.</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<h4 style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="NL">Anonim.
2007. <i>Farmakologi dan Terapi</i></span><i><span lang="NL">,
</span></i><i><span lang="NL">Edisi
5.</span></i><span lang="NL"> Bagian farmakologi</span><span lang="NL"> </span><span lang="NL">Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia. Jakarta: Gayabaru</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span>Anonim. 2010. <i>Tetrasiklin</i>, tersedia di </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetracycline"><span style="color: black;">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetracycline</span></a></span><span>.</span><span> </span><span>diakses pada tanggal 25 mei<span> </span>2012<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Arifin,
Sjamsul. 1985. <i>Kimia Organik Bahan Alam</i>. Universitas Terbuka<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-1771471407280918092012-10-01T07:50:00.000-07:002012-10-01T07:50:19.316-07:00menthol<br />
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MENTOL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SUMBER MENTOL</span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sintesis Mentol Dari
Sitronelal (Minyak Sereh Wangi) </span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Minyak
sereh wangi adalah salah satu minyak atsiri yang penting di Indonesia disamping
minyak atsiri lainnya seperti cengkeh, minyak nilam, dan minyak akar wangi.
Minyak sereh wangi merupakan jenis minyak atsiri yang dihasilkan oleh tanaman
sereh wangi <i><span> </span>(Andropogon nardus L</i>.).
Sereh wangi memiliki dua tipe, yaitu tipe Ceylon (Srilanka) dan tipe Jawa. Tipe
ceylon hampir sebagian besar diproduksi di Pulau Srilanka, sedangkan tipe Jawa
diproduksi terutama di Pulau Jawa dan Formosa, dan belakangan diproduksi juga
di Amerika Tengah (Guatemala dan Honduras), dan Pulau Haiti. Jenis tanaman
sereh wangi yang menghasilkan produk dan mutu yang terbaik adalah jenis
”mahapegiri” yang ditanam di Pulau Jawa. Jenis tanaman ini mengandung 80-97
persen total geraniol dan 30-45 persen sitronelal. Sedangkan jenis ”leanbau”
dari Ceylon hanya mengandung 55-65 persen total geraniol (Guenther, 1990).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Minyak
sereh dihasilkan dengan cara menyuling daun sereh wangi yang mengandung kurang
dari 0.5 – 1.2 persen minyak. Bahan kimia yang terpenting dalam minyak sereh
wangi adalah persenyawaan aldehid dengan nama sitronelal dan persenyawaan
alkohol yang disebut geraniol. Kadar sitronelal dan geraniol sangat menentukan
mutu minyak sereh wangi. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi dan mutu
minyak sereh wangi antara lain: keadaan tanah, iklim, tinggi daerah dari
permukaan laut, dan keadaan daun sebelum disuling (Ketaren, 1985).<span> </span>Ekspor citronella tahun 2002 mencapai
173.294 ton dengan nilai US $ 1150.393 dengan negara tujuan Eropa, Amerika,
Jepang, India, Taiwan, Singapura dan Timur Tengah (Wahyuni, 2003). Minyak yang
kurang memenuhi persyaratan ekspor dijual di pasar domestik sebagai bahan baku
industri sabun, pasta gigi dan obat-obatan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mentol
merupakan salah satu senyawa minyak atsiri yang banyak digunakan secara luas
pada bidang obat-obatan, kosmetik, dan produk-produk lainnya (Kleeman dan
Engel, 1987). Mentol terbentuk melalui hasil hidrogenasi isopulegol menggunakan
bantuan katalis, yang mana isopulegol merupakan hasil dari proses siklisasi
minyak sitornelal (Misono dan Noijri, 1990). Milone, et.al.(1999) menjelaskan
bahwa proses pembentukan mentol dari sitronela terjadi melalui dua tahap, yakni
siklisasi dan hidrogenasi. Proses siklisasi terjadi saat pembentukan isopulegol
dari sitronela pada kondisi asam. Sedangkan, proses hidrogenasi terjadi saat
perubahan isopulegol menjadi mentol.<span> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PROSES
SINTESA MENTOL DARI SITRONELAL </span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Mentol merupakan suatu senyawa yang sudah banyak digunakan sejak
zaman dahulu, baik di bidang farmasi, kosmetik, maupun makanan. Menurut Eccles
(1994), mentol dapat dihasilkan secara sintesa organik maupun dari tanaman <i>Mentha
arvensis</i>. Salah satu sintesa mentol secara sintesa organik, mentol dapat
dihasilkan dari sitronelal.<span> </span>Sitronelal
merupakan salah satu komponen yang terdapat pada minyak sereh. Sitronelal yang
digunakan untuk sintesa mentol merupakan sitronelal yang telah melalui proses
fraksionasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses sintesa mentol dari
sitronelal, secara umum dilakukan melalui dua tahap proses, yaitu proses
siklisasi dan proses hidrogenasi. Sintesa mentol dari sitronelal secara umum
melalui proses isomerisasi sitronelal menjadi isopulegol yang memiliki struktur
alkohol siklik dengan bantuan katalis asam. Selanjutnya, alkohol tidak jenuh
yang terdapat pada struktur isopulegol dihidrogenasi menjadi alkohol<span> </span>jenuh. Hasil hidrogenasi ini yang disebut
dengan mentol ( Kleemann <i>et.al </i>1987 dan Misono dan Noijri 1990).<span> </span>Menurut proses yang dilakukan <i>Tagasako
International Corporation</i>, proses isomerisasi sitronelal menjadi isopulegol
dilakukan dengan menggunakan katalis ZnBr2 dan didapatkan isopulegol yang
terbentuk sebesar 92 persen (Misono dan Noijri 1990). Proses yang dilakukan
Tagasako menggunakan katalis homogen, hal ini membutuhkan peralatan yang mahal
untuk memisahkan antara katalis dan produk serta katalis yang digunakan tidak
dapat didaur ulang untuk digunakan kembali.<span>
</span>Pada beberapa literatur, menjelaskan proses isomerisasi sitronelal
menjadi isopulegol menggunakan katalis heterogen bahkan pada penelitian Milone <i>et.al
</i>(2000) menjelaskan bahwa proses sintesa mentol dapat disintesa langsung
dari sitronelal dengan menggunakan katalis asam yang dikombinasikan dengan <i>ruthenium</i>
sebagai pendukung katalis asam. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penggunaan silika yang
dikombinasikan dengan ruthenium menghasilkan konversi sitronelal sebesar 100
persen dan mentol yang terbentuk sebesar 80 persen, tetapi menghasilkan produk
sampingan dari proses hidrogenasi berupa 3,7-dimetiloktanol. Corma <i>et.al</i>
(2004) menambahkan bahwa proses sintesa mentol secara langsung dengan
menggabungkan katalis untuk reaksi siklisasi dengan katalis untuk reaksi
hidrogenasi atau yang dikenal dengan sintesa mentol sistem satu reaktor yang merupakan
suatu proses yang dapat mengurangi biaya produksi yang mahal jika menggunakan
sistem dua reaktor seperti yang telah lazim digunakan pada proses industri.
Pada proses industri, isopulegol yang dihasilkan dari proses siklisasi harus
dikristalkan terlebih dahulu sebelum dihidrogenasi dan setelah dihasilkan
mentol diperlukan proses untuk memisahkan antara mentol dengan katalis</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">E. KATALIS </span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada proses sintesa mentol dari sitronelal melalui sistem
satu-reaktor, katalis mempunyai peranan yang penting. Katalis pada prinsipnya
berfungsi untuk meningkatkan selektifitas dan aktifitas. Katalis yang digunakan
pada penelitian ini merupakan katalis heterogen dan berbentuk <i>powder</i>.
Penggunaan katalis heterogen dikarenakan katalis heterogen memiliki beberapa
macam kelebihan, antara lain mudah dipisahkan dari reaktan, proses preparasi
dan kontrol katalis yang mudah, dan kualitas produk yang dihasilkan pun baik
(Richardson, 1989).<span> </span>Hal yang perlu
diperhatikan pada katalis adalah aktivitas, selektifitas, dan umur katalis
(Twiga, 1996). Pada katalis heterogen, tahapan proses yang terjadi antara
reaktan dengan katalis padatan adalah difusi reaktan ke permukaan katalis,
reaksi antara reaktan dengan permukaan katalis, dan yang terakhir adalah difusi
produk keluar dari permukaan katalis (Augustine, 1995).<span> </span>Katalis merupakan sejumlah kecil materi yang
ditambahkan kepada suatu reaksi kimia yang berjalan sangat lambat dengan tujuan
agar reaksi tersebut dapat berjalan lebih cepat dan dicapai suatu keadaan
setimbang. Selain itu, katalis juga mempunyai fungsi untuk menurunkan energi
aktivasi yang menyebabkan laju reaksi semakin cepat (Othmer, 1979). </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Bentonit </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bentonit merupakan lempung mineral yang mengandung<span> </span>montmorillonit sebagai komponen utamanya.
Berdasarkan jenis ion penukarnya, bentonit dibedakan menjadi dua jenis, yaitu
jenis sodium yang mengandung ion penukar Na2+<span>
</span>dan jenis kalsium yang mengandung ion penukar Ca(Hasan <i>et.al</i>,
1998). Rumus kimia montmorillonit adalah [(Mg,Ca) O. Al2O3. 5 SiO. nH2O],
dimana nilai n : ± 8. <i>Activated clay</i> merupakan lempung yang pada keadaan
awal kurang<span> </span>memiliki daya pemucat,
tetapi daya pemucatnya dapat ditentukan dengan jalan pengolahan dan pemanasan
sebelum lempung itu dipergunakan didalam proses pemucat warna (Davis and
Messer, 1929)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Titania Dioksida</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: -10.0pt; margin-top: 12.05pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Titania dioksida merupakan
katalis yang berbentuk kristal tetragonal. Titania terdapat dalam tiga
modifikasi kristalin, yaitu anatas, rutil, dan brookit. Angatas dan rutil
umumnya digunakan sebagai adsorben, pigmen, dan katalis. Luas pemukaan titania
anatas dan rutil berkisar antara 5-100 m/g. Anatas dan rutil berbentuk kisi
tetragonal, sementara brookit berbentuk ortorombik. Unit struktural ketiga
bentuk tersebut adalah oktahedron TiO6, perbedaan ketiga kristal tersebut
terletak pada perbedaan penyusunan pada struktur oktahedronnya. Titanium juga
berada pada valensi 3+ dan 2+ dan perlakuan titania dibawah kondisi reduksi
menyebabkan pembentukan fasa oksida nonstoikiometri (Foger, 1984).<span> </span>Beberapa sifat dari logam titanium yaitu
logamnya memiliki kemiripan sifat dengan logam besi dan nikel, keras, tahan
panas (1680 </span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">0</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">C3260 C), penghantar panas dan listrik yang baik, tahan terhadap
korosi sehingga banyak digunakan untuk mesin turbin, industri kimia, dan
peralatan laut. Meskipun unsur yang tidak reaktif, TiO</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> dapat bereaksi dengan
unsur-unsur non logam seperti hidrogen, halogen, oksigen, nitrogen, karbon,
boron, silikon, dan sulfur pada suhu tertentu. Sifat dari senyawa titanium
oksida yaitu sangat stabil dan tahan panas (kimiaunsur_e-learning.com, 2008).
Penemuan titania sulfat sangat efisien untuk reaksi isomerisasi, alkilasi,
asilasi Friedel-Crafts, esterifikasi, oksidasi fotokatalitik, dan reduksi</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: black;">senyawa No</span></span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">x </span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(Bokhimi dan Morales, 2003).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-13529803166769240992012-10-01T07:49:00.003-07:002012-10-01T07:49:51.926-07:00menthol<br />
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MENTOL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SUMBER MENTOL</span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sintesis Mentol Dari
Sitronelal (Minyak Sereh Wangi) </span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Minyak
sereh wangi adalah salah satu minyak atsiri yang penting di Indonesia disamping
minyak atsiri lainnya seperti cengkeh, minyak nilam, dan minyak akar wangi.
Minyak sereh wangi merupakan jenis minyak atsiri yang dihasilkan oleh tanaman
sereh wangi <i><span> </span>(Andropogon nardus L</i>.).
Sereh wangi memiliki dua tipe, yaitu tipe Ceylon (Srilanka) dan tipe Jawa. Tipe
ceylon hampir sebagian besar diproduksi di Pulau Srilanka, sedangkan tipe Jawa
diproduksi terutama di Pulau Jawa dan Formosa, dan belakangan diproduksi juga
di Amerika Tengah (Guatemala dan Honduras), dan Pulau Haiti. Jenis tanaman
sereh wangi yang menghasilkan produk dan mutu yang terbaik adalah jenis
”mahapegiri” yang ditanam di Pulau Jawa. Jenis tanaman ini mengandung 80-97
persen total geraniol dan 30-45 persen sitronelal. Sedangkan jenis ”leanbau”
dari Ceylon hanya mengandung 55-65 persen total geraniol (Guenther, 1990).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Minyak
sereh dihasilkan dengan cara menyuling daun sereh wangi yang mengandung kurang
dari 0.5 – 1.2 persen minyak. Bahan kimia yang terpenting dalam minyak sereh
wangi adalah persenyawaan aldehid dengan nama sitronelal dan persenyawaan
alkohol yang disebut geraniol. Kadar sitronelal dan geraniol sangat menentukan
mutu minyak sereh wangi. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi dan mutu
minyak sereh wangi antara lain: keadaan tanah, iklim, tinggi daerah dari
permukaan laut, dan keadaan daun sebelum disuling (Ketaren, 1985).<span> </span>Ekspor citronella tahun 2002 mencapai
173.294 ton dengan nilai US $ 1150.393 dengan negara tujuan Eropa, Amerika,
Jepang, India, Taiwan, Singapura dan Timur Tengah (Wahyuni, 2003). Minyak yang
kurang memenuhi persyaratan ekspor dijual di pasar domestik sebagai bahan baku
industri sabun, pasta gigi dan obat-obatan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mentol
merupakan salah satu senyawa minyak atsiri yang banyak digunakan secara luas
pada bidang obat-obatan, kosmetik, dan produk-produk lainnya (Kleeman dan
Engel, 1987). Mentol terbentuk melalui hasil hidrogenasi isopulegol menggunakan
bantuan katalis, yang mana isopulegol merupakan hasil dari proses siklisasi
minyak sitornelal (Misono dan Noijri, 1990). Milone, et.al.(1999) menjelaskan
bahwa proses pembentukan mentol dari sitronela terjadi melalui dua tahap, yakni
siklisasi dan hidrogenasi. Proses siklisasi terjadi saat pembentukan isopulegol
dari sitronela pada kondisi asam. Sedangkan, proses hidrogenasi terjadi saat
perubahan isopulegol menjadi mentol.<span> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PROSES
SINTESA MENTOL DARI SITRONELAL </span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Mentol merupakan suatu senyawa yang sudah banyak digunakan sejak
zaman dahulu, baik di bidang farmasi, kosmetik, maupun makanan. Menurut Eccles
(1994), mentol dapat dihasilkan secara sintesa organik maupun dari tanaman <i>Mentha
arvensis</i>. Salah satu sintesa mentol secara sintesa organik, mentol dapat
dihasilkan dari sitronelal.<span> </span>Sitronelal
merupakan salah satu komponen yang terdapat pada minyak sereh. Sitronelal yang
digunakan untuk sintesa mentol merupakan sitronelal yang telah melalui proses
fraksionasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses sintesa mentol dari
sitronelal, secara umum dilakukan melalui dua tahap proses, yaitu proses
siklisasi dan proses hidrogenasi. Sintesa mentol dari sitronelal secara umum
melalui proses isomerisasi sitronelal menjadi isopulegol yang memiliki struktur
alkohol siklik dengan bantuan katalis asam. Selanjutnya, alkohol tidak jenuh
yang terdapat pada struktur isopulegol dihidrogenasi menjadi alkohol<span> </span>jenuh. Hasil hidrogenasi ini yang disebut
dengan mentol ( Kleemann <i>et.al </i>1987 dan Misono dan Noijri 1990).<span> </span>Menurut proses yang dilakukan <i>Tagasako
International Corporation</i>, proses isomerisasi sitronelal menjadi isopulegol
dilakukan dengan menggunakan katalis ZnBr2 dan didapatkan isopulegol yang
terbentuk sebesar 92 persen (Misono dan Noijri 1990). Proses yang dilakukan
Tagasako menggunakan katalis homogen, hal ini membutuhkan peralatan yang mahal
untuk memisahkan antara katalis dan produk serta katalis yang digunakan tidak
dapat didaur ulang untuk digunakan kembali.<span>
</span>Pada beberapa literatur, menjelaskan proses isomerisasi sitronelal
menjadi isopulegol menggunakan katalis heterogen bahkan pada penelitian Milone <i>et.al
</i>(2000) menjelaskan bahwa proses sintesa mentol dapat disintesa langsung
dari sitronelal dengan menggunakan katalis asam yang dikombinasikan dengan <i>ruthenium</i>
sebagai pendukung katalis asam. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penggunaan silika yang
dikombinasikan dengan ruthenium menghasilkan konversi sitronelal sebesar 100
persen dan mentol yang terbentuk sebesar 80 persen, tetapi menghasilkan produk
sampingan dari proses hidrogenasi berupa 3,7-dimetiloktanol. Corma <i>et.al</i>
(2004) menambahkan bahwa proses sintesa mentol secara langsung dengan
menggabungkan katalis untuk reaksi siklisasi dengan katalis untuk reaksi
hidrogenasi atau yang dikenal dengan sintesa mentol sistem satu reaktor yang merupakan
suatu proses yang dapat mengurangi biaya produksi yang mahal jika menggunakan
sistem dua reaktor seperti yang telah lazim digunakan pada proses industri.
Pada proses industri, isopulegol yang dihasilkan dari proses siklisasi harus
dikristalkan terlebih dahulu sebelum dihidrogenasi dan setelah dihasilkan
mentol diperlukan proses untuk memisahkan antara mentol dengan katalis</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:414pt;
height:192.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image008.png"
o:title="v"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="257" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="552" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<div class="Section2">
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">E. KATALIS </span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: -7.1pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 17.5pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada proses sintesa mentol dari sitronelal melalui sistem
satu-reaktor, katalis mempunyai peranan yang penting. Katalis pada prinsipnya
berfungsi untuk meningkatkan selektifitas dan aktifitas. Katalis yang digunakan
pada penelitian ini merupakan katalis heterogen dan berbentuk <i>powder</i>.
Penggunaan katalis heterogen dikarenakan katalis heterogen memiliki beberapa
macam kelebihan, antara lain mudah dipisahkan dari reaktan, proses preparasi
dan kontrol katalis yang mudah, dan kualitas produk yang dihasilkan pun baik
(Richardson, 1989).<span> </span>Hal yang perlu
diperhatikan pada katalis adalah aktivitas, selektifitas, dan umur katalis
(Twiga, 1996). Pada katalis heterogen, tahapan proses yang terjadi antara
reaktan dengan katalis padatan adalah difusi reaktan ke permukaan katalis,
reaksi antara reaktan dengan permukaan katalis, dan yang terakhir adalah difusi
produk keluar dari permukaan katalis (Augustine, 1995).<span> </span>Katalis merupakan sejumlah kecil materi yang
ditambahkan kepada suatu reaksi kimia yang berjalan sangat lambat dengan tujuan
agar reaksi tersebut dapat berjalan lebih cepat dan dicapai suatu keadaan
setimbang. Selain itu, katalis juga mempunyai fungsi untuk menurunkan energi
aktivasi yang menyebabkan laju reaksi semakin cepat (Othmer, 1979). </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 28.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.55pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Bentonit </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bentonit merupakan lempung mineral yang mengandung<span> </span>montmorillonit sebagai komponen utamanya.
Berdasarkan jenis ion penukarnya, bentonit dibedakan menjadi dua jenis, yaitu
jenis sodium yang mengandung ion penukar Na2+<span>
</span>dan jenis kalsium yang mengandung ion penukar Ca(Hasan <i>et.al</i>,
1998). Rumus kimia montmorillonit adalah [(Mg,Ca) O. Al2O3. 5 SiO. nH2O],
dimana nilai n : ± 8. <i>Activated clay</i> merupakan lempung yang pada keadaan
awal kurang<span> </span>memiliki daya pemucat,
tetapi daya pemucatnya dapat ditentukan dengan jalan pengolahan dan pemanasan
sebelum lempung itu dipergunakan didalam proses pemucat warna (Davis and
Messer, 1929)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Titania Dioksida</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: -10.0pt; margin-top: 12.05pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Titania dioksida merupakan
katalis yang berbentuk kristal tetragonal. Titania terdapat dalam tiga
modifikasi kristalin, yaitu anatas, rutil, dan brookit. Angatas dan rutil
umumnya digunakan sebagai adsorben, pigmen, dan katalis. Luas pemukaan titania
anatas dan rutil berkisar antara 5-100 m/g. Anatas dan rutil berbentuk kisi
tetragonal, sementara brookit berbentuk ortorombik. Unit struktural ketiga
bentuk tersebut adalah oktahedron TiO6, perbedaan ketiga kristal tersebut
terletak pada perbedaan penyusunan pada struktur oktahedronnya. Titanium juga
berada pada valensi 3+ dan 2+ dan perlakuan titania dibawah kondisi reduksi
menyebabkan pembentukan fasa oksida nonstoikiometri (Foger, 1984).<span> </span>Beberapa sifat dari logam titanium yaitu
logamnya memiliki kemiripan sifat dengan logam besi dan nikel, keras, tahan
panas (1680 </span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">0</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">C3260 C), penghantar panas dan listrik yang baik, tahan terhadap
korosi sehingga banyak digunakan untuk mesin turbin, industri kimia, dan
peralatan laut. Meskipun unsur yang tidak reaktif, TiO</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> dapat bereaksi dengan
unsur-unsur non logam seperti hidrogen, halogen, oksigen, nitrogen, karbon,
boron, silikon, dan sulfur pada suhu tertentu. Sifat dari senyawa titanium
oksida yaitu sangat stabil dan tahan panas (kimiaunsur_e-learning.com, 2008).
Penemuan titania sulfat sangat efisien untuk reaksi isomerisasi, alkilasi,
asilasi Friedel-Crafts, esterifikasi, oksidasi fotokatalitik, dan reduksi</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: black;">senyawa No</span></span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">x </span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(Bokhimi dan Morales, 2003).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</div>
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</span>
<div class="Section3">
</div>
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-5690376774469975862012-10-01T07:49:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:49:39.495-07:00menthol<br />
<div class="Section1">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.35pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MENTOL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: -7.25pt; margin-top: 12.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SUMBER MENTOL</span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sintesis Mentol Dari
Sitronelal (Minyak Sereh Wangi) </span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: -7.25pt; margin-top: 12.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Minyak
sereh wangi adalah salah satu minyak atsiri yang penting di Indonesia disamping
minyak atsiri lainnya seperti cengkeh, minyak nilam, dan minyak akar wangi.
Minyak sereh wangi merupakan jenis minyak atsiri yang dihasilkan oleh tanaman
sereh wangi <i><span> </span>(Andropogon nardus L</i>.).
Sereh wangi memiliki dua tipe, yaitu tipe Ceylon (Srilanka) dan tipe Jawa. Tipe
ceylon hampir sebagian besar diproduksi di Pulau Srilanka, sedangkan tipe Jawa
diproduksi terutama di Pulau Jawa dan Formosa, dan belakangan diproduksi juga
di Amerika Tengah (Guatemala dan Honduras), dan Pulau Haiti. Jenis tanaman
sereh wangi yang menghasilkan produk dan mutu yang terbaik adalah jenis
”mahapegiri” yang ditanam di Pulau Jawa. Jenis tanaman ini mengandung 80-97
persen total geraniol dan 30-45 persen sitronelal. Sedangkan jenis ”leanbau”
dari Ceylon hanya mengandung 55-65 persen total geraniol (Guenther, 1990).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: -7.25pt; margin-top: 12.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Minyak
sereh dihasilkan dengan cara menyuling daun sereh wangi yang mengandung kurang
dari 0.5 – 1.2 persen minyak. Bahan kimia yang terpenting dalam minyak sereh
wangi adalah persenyawaan aldehid dengan nama sitronelal dan persenyawaan
alkohol yang disebut geraniol. Kadar sitronelal dan geraniol sangat menentukan
mutu minyak sereh wangi. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi dan mutu
minyak sereh wangi antara lain: keadaan tanah, iklim, tinggi daerah dari
permukaan laut, dan keadaan daun sebelum disuling (Ketaren, 1985).<span> </span>Ekspor citronella tahun 2002 mencapai
173.294 ton dengan nilai US $ 1150.393 dengan negara tujuan Eropa, Amerika,
Jepang, India, Taiwan, Singapura dan Timur Tengah (Wahyuni, 2003). Minyak yang
kurang memenuhi persyaratan ekspor dijual di pasar domestik sebagai bahan baku
industri sabun, pasta gigi dan obat-obatan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mentol
merupakan salah satu senyawa minyak atsiri yang banyak digunakan secara luas
pada bidang obat-obatan, kosmetik, dan produk-produk lainnya (Kleeman dan
Engel, 1987). Mentol terbentuk melalui hasil hidrogenasi isopulegol menggunakan
bantuan katalis, yang mana isopulegol merupakan hasil dari proses siklisasi
minyak sitornelal (Misono dan Noijri, 1990). Milone, et.al.(1999) menjelaskan
bahwa proses pembentukan mentol dari sitronela terjadi melalui dua tahap, yakni
siklisasi dan hidrogenasi. Proses siklisasi terjadi saat pembentukan isopulegol
dari sitronela pada kondisi asam. Sedangkan, proses hidrogenasi terjadi saat
perubahan isopulegol menjadi mentol.<span> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image004.png"
o:title="mentol"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="mso-ignore: vglayout; position: relative; z-index: -1;"><span style="height: 203px; left: 0px; left: 187px; position: absolute; top: -34px; width: 218px;"><img height="203" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="218" /></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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height:166.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
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o:title="3"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="222" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="475" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PROSES
SINTESA MENTOL DARI SITRONELAL </span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 17.5pt; margin-right: -10.0pt; margin-top: 12.75pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Mentol merupakan suatu senyawa yang sudah banyak digunakan sejak
zaman dahulu, baik di bidang farmasi, kosmetik, maupun makanan. Menurut Eccles
(1994), mentol dapat dihasilkan secara sintesa organik maupun dari tanaman <i>Mentha
arvensis</i>. Salah satu sintesa mentol secara sintesa organik, mentol dapat
dihasilkan dari sitronelal.<span> </span>Sitronelal
merupakan salah satu komponen yang terdapat pada minyak sereh. Sitronelal yang
digunakan untuk sintesa mentol merupakan sitronelal yang telah melalui proses
fraksionasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses sintesa mentol dari
sitronelal, secara umum dilakukan melalui dua tahap proses, yaitu proses
siklisasi dan proses hidrogenasi. Sintesa mentol dari sitronelal secara umum
melalui proses isomerisasi sitronelal menjadi isopulegol yang memiliki struktur
alkohol siklik dengan bantuan katalis asam. Selanjutnya, alkohol tidak jenuh
yang terdapat pada struktur isopulegol dihidrogenasi menjadi alkohol<span> </span>jenuh. Hasil hidrogenasi ini yang disebut
dengan mentol ( Kleemann <i>et.al </i>1987 dan Misono dan Noijri 1990).<span> </span>Menurut proses yang dilakukan <i>Tagasako
International Corporation</i>, proses isomerisasi sitronelal menjadi isopulegol
dilakukan dengan menggunakan katalis ZnBr2 dan didapatkan isopulegol yang
terbentuk sebesar 92 persen (Misono dan Noijri 1990). Proses yang dilakukan
Tagasako menggunakan katalis homogen, hal ini membutuhkan peralatan yang mahal
untuk memisahkan antara katalis dan produk serta katalis yang digunakan tidak
dapat didaur ulang untuk digunakan kembali.<span>
</span>Pada beberapa literatur, menjelaskan proses isomerisasi sitronelal
menjadi isopulegol menggunakan katalis heterogen bahkan pada penelitian Milone <i>et.al
</i>(2000) menjelaskan bahwa proses sintesa mentol dapat disintesa langsung
dari sitronelal dengan menggunakan katalis asam yang dikombinasikan dengan <i>ruthenium</i>
sebagai pendukung katalis asam. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penggunaan silika yang
dikombinasikan dengan ruthenium menghasilkan konversi sitronelal sebesar 100
persen dan mentol yang terbentuk sebesar 80 persen, tetapi menghasilkan produk
sampingan dari proses hidrogenasi berupa 3,7-dimetiloktanol. Corma <i>et.al</i>
(2004) menambahkan bahwa proses sintesa mentol secara langsung dengan
menggabungkan katalis untuk reaksi siklisasi dengan katalis untuk reaksi
hidrogenasi atau yang dikenal dengan sintesa mentol sistem satu reaktor yang merupakan
suatu proses yang dapat mengurangi biaya produksi yang mahal jika menggunakan
sistem dua reaktor seperti yang telah lazim digunakan pada proses industri.
Pada proses industri, isopulegol yang dihasilkan dari proses siklisasi harus
dikristalkan terlebih dahulu sebelum dihidrogenasi dan setelah dihasilkan
mentol diperlukan proses untuk memisahkan antara mentol dengan katalis</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:414pt;
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</div>
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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<div class="Section2">
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">E. KATALIS </span></b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada proses sintesa mentol dari sitronelal melalui sistem
satu-reaktor, katalis mempunyai peranan yang penting. Katalis pada prinsipnya
berfungsi untuk meningkatkan selektifitas dan aktifitas. Katalis yang digunakan
pada penelitian ini merupakan katalis heterogen dan berbentuk <i>powder</i>.
Penggunaan katalis heterogen dikarenakan katalis heterogen memiliki beberapa
macam kelebihan, antara lain mudah dipisahkan dari reaktan, proses preparasi
dan kontrol katalis yang mudah, dan kualitas produk yang dihasilkan pun baik
(Richardson, 1989).<span> </span>Hal yang perlu
diperhatikan pada katalis adalah aktivitas, selektifitas, dan umur katalis
(Twiga, 1996). Pada katalis heterogen, tahapan proses yang terjadi antara
reaktan dengan katalis padatan adalah difusi reaktan ke permukaan katalis,
reaksi antara reaktan dengan permukaan katalis, dan yang terakhir adalah difusi
produk keluar dari permukaan katalis (Augustine, 1995).<span> </span>Katalis merupakan sejumlah kecil materi yang
ditambahkan kepada suatu reaksi kimia yang berjalan sangat lambat dengan tujuan
agar reaksi tersebut dapat berjalan lebih cepat dan dicapai suatu keadaan
setimbang. Selain itu, katalis juga mempunyai fungsi untuk menurunkan energi
aktivasi yang menyebabkan laju reaksi semakin cepat (Othmer, 1979). </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Bentonit </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bentonit merupakan lempung mineral yang mengandung<span> </span>montmorillonit sebagai komponen utamanya.
Berdasarkan jenis ion penukarnya, bentonit dibedakan menjadi dua jenis, yaitu
jenis sodium yang mengandung ion penukar Na2+<span>
</span>dan jenis kalsium yang mengandung ion penukar Ca(Hasan <i>et.al</i>,
1998). Rumus kimia montmorillonit adalah [(Mg,Ca) O. Al2O3. 5 SiO. nH2O],
dimana nilai n : ± 8. <i>Activated clay</i> merupakan lempung yang pada keadaan
awal kurang<span> </span>memiliki daya pemucat,
tetapi daya pemucatnya dapat ditentukan dengan jalan pengolahan dan pemanasan
sebelum lempung itu dipergunakan didalam proses pemucat warna (Davis and
Messer, 1929)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Titania Dioksida</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: -10.0pt; margin-top: 12.05pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Titania dioksida merupakan
katalis yang berbentuk kristal tetragonal. Titania terdapat dalam tiga
modifikasi kristalin, yaitu anatas, rutil, dan brookit. Angatas dan rutil
umumnya digunakan sebagai adsorben, pigmen, dan katalis. Luas pemukaan titania
anatas dan rutil berkisar antara 5-100 m/g. Anatas dan rutil berbentuk kisi
tetragonal, sementara brookit berbentuk ortorombik. Unit struktural ketiga
bentuk tersebut adalah oktahedron TiO6, perbedaan ketiga kristal tersebut
terletak pada perbedaan penyusunan pada struktur oktahedronnya. Titanium juga
berada pada valensi 3+ dan 2+ dan perlakuan titania dibawah kondisi reduksi
menyebabkan pembentukan fasa oksida nonstoikiometri (Foger, 1984).<span> </span>Beberapa sifat dari logam titanium yaitu
logamnya memiliki kemiripan sifat dengan logam besi dan nikel, keras, tahan
panas (1680 </span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">0</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">C3260 C), penghantar panas dan listrik yang baik, tahan terhadap
korosi sehingga banyak digunakan untuk mesin turbin, industri kimia, dan
peralatan laut. Meskipun unsur yang tidak reaktif, TiO</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> dapat bereaksi dengan
unsur-unsur non logam seperti hidrogen, halogen, oksigen, nitrogen, karbon,
boron, silikon, dan sulfur pada suhu tertentu. Sifat dari senyawa titanium
oksida yaitu sangat stabil dan tahan panas (kimiaunsur_e-learning.com, 2008).
Penemuan titania sulfat sangat efisien untuk reaksi isomerisasi, alkilasi,
asilasi Friedel-Crafts, esterifikasi, oksidasi fotokatalitik, dan reduksi</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: black;">senyawa No</span></span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%;">x </span><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(Bokhimi dan Morales, 2003).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</div>
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</span>
<div class="Section3">
</div>
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-51606243322162929632012-10-01T07:48:00.003-07:002012-10-01T07:48:39.871-07:00NMR<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 150%;">RESUME<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
RESONANSI MAGNETIK INTI (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Diajukan
untuk memenuhi tugas individu mata kuliah Kimia Instrumen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/>
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<o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/>
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height:173.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
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o:title="1771979-1"/>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disusun
Oleh:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Iim
Imas (1209208045)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PENDIDIKAN
KIMIA B/ VI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">FAKULTAS
TARBIYAH DAN KEGURUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UNIVERSITAS
ISLAM NEGERI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SUNAN
GUNUNG DJATI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">BANDUNG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2012<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
RESONANSI MAGNETIK INTI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektroskopi
Resonansi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">NMR
(Nuclear Magnetic Resonance), spektroskopi NMR berhubungan dengan sifat magnet
dari inti atom. Teknik spektroskopi adalah salah satu teknik analisis
kimia-fisika yang mengamati tentang interaksi atom atau molekul dengan radiasi
elektromagnetik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
tahun 1945 dua group dari serjana fisika furcell, Torry,dan Pound (Haward
University) dan block, Hansen, dan Packard (Stanford University) menemukan
fenomena inti yang mempunyai proton dan electron memiliki medan magnet. Dalam
magnet yang kuat inti-inti dianggap berorientasi spesifik dengan tenaga
potensial yang sesuai. Setiap proton mempunyai tenaga putaran yang sama dan
putaran-putarannya mempunyai arah orientasi seimbang. Oleh karena medan magnet,
putaran-putaran proton diarahkan baik paralel atau anti paralel terhadap medan
magnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Block
dan Purcell menemukan cara-cara untuk mengetahui sejumlah kecil dari tenaga
yang diserap atau dipancarkan, seperti kalau inti-inti loncat dari tenaga satu
ke tenaga lainnya. Dari penemuan tersebut maka sejak tahun 1950 resonansi
magnetik inti (NMR) mulai digunakan untuk menentukan rumus struktur senyawa.
Ada dua macam NMR yang dikenal. Diantaranya NMR proton dan NMR karbon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">SPEKTROSKOPI
PROTON H-NMR</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektroskopi
NMR proton merupakan sarana untuk menentukan stuktur senyawa organik dengan
mengukur momen magnet atom hydrogen. Pada kebanyakan senyawa, atom hydrogen
terikat pada gugus yang berlainan ( seperti –CH<sub>2</sub>-, -CH<sub>3-, </sub>-CHO,
-NH<sub>2</sub>, -CHOH- ) dan spektum NMR proton merupakan rekaman sejumlah
atom hydrogen yang berada dalam lingkungan yang berlainan. Spektum ini tidak
dapat memberikan keterangan langsung mengenai sifat kerangka karbon molekul
sehingga diperlukan spektum NMR C-13.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Larutan
cuplikan dalam pelarut lembam ditempatkan diantara kutub magnet yang kuat, dan
proton mengalami pergeseran kimia yang berlainan sesuai dengan lingkungan
molekulnya di dalam molekul. Ini diukur dalam radar NMR, biasanya
tetrametilsilan (TMS) digunakan sebagai acuan, yaitu senyawa lembam yang
ditambahkan ke dalam larutan cuplikan tanpa ada kemungkinan terjadinya reaksi
kimia dengan senyawa yang akan diukur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adapun
pelarut yang biasanya digunakan yaitu karbontetraklorida, deuterokloroform,
deuteriumoksida, deuteroaseton, atau dimetilsulfoksida terdeuterasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektoskopi
NMR dapat digunakan sebagai alat sidik jari.dan juga memberikan keterangan
tentang jumlah setiap tipe hydrogen. Ia juga memberikan keterangan tentang
sifat lingkungan dari setiap atom hydrogen tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kegunaan
yang besar dari resonansi magnet inti adalah karena tidak setiap proton dalam
molekul beresonansi pada frekwensi yang identik sama. Ini disebabkan oleh
kenyataan bahwa berbagai proton dalam molekul dikelilingi elektron dan
menunjukan sedikit perbedaan lingkungan elektronik dari 1 proton ke proton
lainnya. Proton-proton dilindungi oleh elektron-elektron disekelilingnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spectrum
NMR tidak hanya dapat membedakan beberapa banyak proton yang berbeda dalam
molekul, teteapi ia juga mengungkapkan berapa banyak setiap tipe proton
berbeda yang terkandung dalam molekulnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada spektormetri NMR integrasi
sangat penting. Harga integrasi menunjukkan daerah atau luas puncak dari
tiap-tiap proton. Sedangkan luas daerah atau luas puncak tersebut sesuai dengan
jumlah proton. Dengan demikian perbandingan tiap integrasi proton sama dengan
perbandingan jumlah proton dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Daerah geseran kimia proton bernilai antara 0 – 200
ppm, berikut daerah geseran kimia yang penting untuk beberapa jenis karbon :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
KARBON-13<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sinyal
dari atom C<sup>13</sup> dalam alat NMR dapat dideteksi karena adanya
sejumlah kecil atom karbon C-13 bersama-sama C-12. momen magnet yang dihasilkan
oleh <sup>13</sup>C lebih kecil, bila dibandingkan dengan momen magnet
proton, berarti sinyalnya jauh lebih lemah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pelarut
yang biasanya digunakan serupa dengan NMR proton, tetapi jangka resonansi C jauh
lebih besar. Sehingga spektum NMR-<sup>13</sup>C jauh lebih teresolusi, umumnya
setiap karbon dalam molekul dapat ditetapkan sinyalnya. Sama halnya seperti
pada NMR proton, atom karbon penyulihannya berlainan akan menunjukkan geseran
dalam jangka yang khas. Spectrum NMR<sup>13</sup>C pada hakikatnya merupakan
pelengkap NMR proton.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada
spectrum C-NMR dalam elusidasi struktur perlu diperhatikan :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Luas di bawah puncak yang biasanya
dinyatakan dengan intergrasi untuk melihat perbandingan jumlah carbon yang
ekuivalen secara magnetic pada masing-masing puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terjadinya spin-spin splinting yang
mengikuti segitiga pascal. Interaksi antara ikatan electron yang mempunyai
kencerungan berpasangan spin dari electron dengan electron lainnya pada proton
yang diikat. Spin-spin splinting ini sering dihilangkan dengan cara di
dekloping guna menghindari puncak-puncak yang tumpang tindih.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Geseran kimia (chemical shift),
yaitu kedudukan karbon dalam spektum tersebut. Ini juga menggambarkan letak dan
kedudukan karbon dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cirri-ciri
Spektroskopi <sub>14</sub>C NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektroskopi <sub>13</sub>C NMR
menghasilkan informasi struktur mengenai karbon-karbon dalam sebuah molekul
organik. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam spektroskopi 1H NMR kita bekerja
dengan isotop hidrogen alamiah dengan kelimpahan 99,985 %, atom hidrogen
alamiah adalah 1H,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Atom karbon dalam alam 98,9 % adalah
12C, suatu isotop yang intinya tak mempunyai spin (I = 0). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karbon -13 hanya merupakan 1,1 % atom
karbon yang terdapat di alam ( I = ½). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Transisi dari paralel ke antiparalel
dari sebuah inti 13C adalah transisi energi rendah. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektra 13C NMR hanya dapat diperoleh
dengan spektrometer yang sangat sensitif. Kelimpahan 13C yang rendah akan
mengurangi kerumitan spektra 13C dibandingkan spektra 1H NMR. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">interaksi antar karbon yang berdekatan
diabaikan, tetapi karbon dapat berinteraksi dengan proton yang diikat oleh
masing-masing karbon yang menyebabkan terjadinya spliting yang menunjukkan
puncak (n + 1), n = jumlah H, oleh karena itu sinyal masing-masing karbon dari
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metil (CH3-C) akan muncul 4 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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metilen (-CH2-) akan muncul 3 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metil (-CH-) akan muncul 2 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
kuarterner (-C-) akan muncul 1</span><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">puncak,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk membedakan jenis karbon, metil,
metilen, metin, dan karbon kuarterner digunakan analisis spektrum DEPT 13C NMR
atau NMR dua dimensi (HMQC = korelasi antara proton-karbon satu ikatan). Ada
tiga jenis spektrum DEPT 13C NMR, yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DEPT
90o= hanya muncul sinyal C-H.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DEPT
135o= muncul sinyal CH dan CH3masing-masing berharga positif, sedangkan sinyal
CH2akan muncul sebagai sinyal berharga negatif.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip
Kerja Spektroskopi Resonansi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip
yang mendasari kerja dari NMR yaitu </span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;">penyerapan
energi oleh partikel yang sedang berputar di dalam medan magnet yang kuat </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">sehingga
nantinya medan magnet yang sesuai dengan molekul akan dikonversi menjadi
spektra NMR sehingga </span><i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;">struktur
senyawa / rumus bangun molekul senyawa organik</span></i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">dapat teridentifikasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrometri
NMR pada dasarnya merupakan spektrometri absorbsi, sebagaimana spektrometri
infra merah maupun ultraviolet. Pada kondisi yang sesuai, suatu sampel dapat
mengabsorpsi radiasi elektromagnetik daerah frekuensi radio, pada frekuensi yang
tergantung dari sifat-sifat sampel. Suatu plot dari frekuensi puncak-puncak
absorbsi versus intensitas puncak memberikan suatu spektrum NMR. Dalam NMR yang
diukur adalah perbedaan frekuensi antara suatu jenis proton dengan frekuensi
resonansi proton senyawa pembanding (reference). Senyawa ini disebut sebagai
standar internal dan ditambahkan ke dalam sample sebelum me”running” NMR.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pergeseran
kimia</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(CHEMICAL SHIFT)</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>adalah pengukuran medan dalam keadaan bebas.
Semua proton-proton dalam satu molekul yang ada dalam lingkungan kimia yang
serupa kadang-kadang menunjukkan pergeseran kimia yang sama. Setiap senyawa
memberikan penaikan menjadi puncak absorbsi tunggal dalam spektrum NMR.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa
yang digunakan sebagai senyawa reference tersebut adalah : Tetra Metil Silan
(TMS).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar Tetra Metil Silan (TMS)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1051" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:168.75pt;height:89.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.png"
o:title="jhhjhbnjn"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="119" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1051" width="225" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
memberikan sinyal yang tajam (singlet) dengan intensitas tinggi, karena
mempunyai 12 proton yang ekuivalen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
mengabsorbsi pada ‘higher field’ dibanding hampir semua proton organik (Si
bersifat elektropositif, sehingga proton-proton dalam TMS sangat terlindungi
(shielded).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bersifat
inert.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mempunyai
titik didih yang rendah (27<sup>o</sup>C), sehingga mudah dihilangkan jika
digunakan untuk dua kali pengujian senyawa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Larut
dalam kebanyakan pelarut organic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
tidak larut dalam air maupun D2O. Dalam hal ini TMS dapat diperlakukan sebagai
‘external standard’. Atau dapat juga dipakai garam natrium dari asam 3-
(trimetilsilil)-propanasulfonat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(CH3)3SiCH2CH2CH2SO3-Na+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo12; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berapa
Hz bergesernya suatu proton dari TMS akan tergantung pada kekuatan medan magnet
eksternal yang digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo12; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Semakin
besar medan magnet yang digunakan, semakin besar perbedaan frekuensi dari TMS.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1050" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:311.25pt;height:141.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.png"
o:title="hgjhgmh"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="189" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1050" width="415" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1049" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:303pt;height:164.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.png"
o:title="nbj,nhkjnhvhg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="219" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1049" width="404" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hal
ini akan menyulitkan kita apabila kita ingin membandingkan data (spectrum) yang
diperoleh dengan spektrometer NMR yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Maka
digunakan parameter baru yang tidak tergantung pada kekuatan medan magnet
eksternal yang digunakan, yaitu : chemical shift, geseran kimia (ᵟ)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1048" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:267pt;height:50.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.png"
o:title="ojkjjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="67" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1048" width="356" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari
contoh spectra di atas, maka:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1047" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;height:132.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png"
o:title="mn ,mn m"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="177" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1047" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Chemical
shift juga bisa dinyatakan dalam skala ˠ (tau), dimana ˠ = 10 – ᵟ<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
spektrum NMR, luas daerah di bawah puncak (peak) akan proposional dengan jumlah
hidrogen yang menimbulkan/menghasilkan peak tersebut. Integrasi peak biasanya
ditunjukkan sebagi suatu garis integrasi (integration line). Tinggi integrasi
di atas suatu peak secara langsung proporsional dengan luas daerah di bawah
peak tersebut. Tinggi garis integrasi tidak menunjukkan jumlah absolut dari
proton, tetapi memberikan jumlah relatif dari masing-masing tipe hidrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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id="_x0000_i1046" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:332.25pt;height:171pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png"
o:title="gfgbhgbn"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="228" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1046" width="443" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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style='width:339pt;height:1in;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.png"
o:title="1"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="96" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1045" width="452" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karena
jumlah total proton dalam benzil asetat ada 10, maka jumlah proton yang menghasilkan
peak-peak pada ᵟ 7,3 ; ᵟ 5,1 dan ᵟ 2,0 berturut-turut adalah 5/10 x 10 = 5;
2/10 x 10 = 2 dan 3/10 x 10 = 3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumen
NMR yang modern tidak hanya memperlihatkan garis integrasi pada spectrum yang
dihasilkan , tetapi juga memberikan bilangan integrasi (integration number),
yang memberikan jumlah relatif hidrogen di bawah suatu peak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_9" o:spid="_x0000_i1044"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:353.25pt;height:190.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.png"
o:title="2"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="254" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel:
Bilangan kuantum spin dan kelimpahannya di alam dari beberapa inti atom<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1043" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:468pt;height:169.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.png"
o:title="ipong"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="226" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1043" width="624" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misal:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">12C → jumlah proton = 6
(genap)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">No massa = 12 (genap)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sehingga tidak muncul
pada spektra NMR (NMR negatif) Jika I = 0 →tidak aktif NMR proton Kelimpahan di
alam:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1H = 99,985 → sebagian
besar proton di alam adalah radioaktif →aktif NMR <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hampir semua proton
aktif <span> </span>NMR dan kelimpahannya di alam
tinggi, sehingga kemungkinan proton aktif <span> </span>NMR berdekatan dengan proton aktif NMR dalam
molekul-molekul di alam adalah besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">13C = 1,1 →sangat
sedikit →aktif NMR <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Atom
C yang aktif <span> </span>NMR kelimpahannya di alam
hanya sedikit, sehingga kemungkinan C aktif NMR berdekatan dengan C aktif NMR
dalam molekul-molekul adalah kecil. Dalam keadaan normal (inti tidak
dikenai/diletakkan pada medan magnet eksternal), semua orientasi dari suatu
inti berenergi sama (degenerasi). Bila inti dikenai medan magnet, maka
orientasi/tingkat spin tidak lagi berenergi sama. Hal ini disebabkan karena
inti mempunyai momen magnetik (.) yang ditimbulkan oleh berpusingnya muatan.
Jumlah orientasi yang mungkin bagi suatu inti bila padanya dikenakan medan
magnet homogen eksternal ditentukan oleh bilangan kuantum spin (I) dari inti
tersebut, sesuai dengan persamaan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1042" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:181.5pt;height:24pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.png"
o:title="12"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="32" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1042" width="242" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jadi
untuk inti 1H dan <sup>13</sup>C, dengan I = ½, masing-masing akan mempunyai
dua macam orientasi (2 x ½ + 1 = 2), yaitu + ½ (searah dengan medan magnet) dan
– ½ (berlawanan arah/melawan medan magnet). Tingkatan spin + ½ berenergi lebih
rendah karena searah dengan medan magnet karena searah dengan medan magnet
eksternal, sedang tingkatan spin – ½ berenergi lebih tinggi karena melawan
medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1041" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:447pt;
height:161.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.png"
o:title="redttythj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="215" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="596" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi spin inti:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi random (dalam
ketiadaan medan magnet eksternal).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi spesifik
(dalam medan magnet eksternal, Ho). Kebanyakan spin searah dengan medan magnet
eksternal (paralel), dan sebagian antiparalel (melawan Ho). Tingkat spin
paralel mempunyai energi yang lebih rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perbedaan
energi antara dua tingkatan spin tersebut dinyatakan dengan persamaan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1040"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:121.5pt;height:23.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image027.png"
o:title="dghfg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="31" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="162" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">h = tetapan Planck<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ˠ= “magnetogeryc ratio”
(tetapan bagi tiap-tiap inti)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bo
= kekuatan medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari persamaan tersebut terlihat bahwa
perbedaan energi antara dua tingkatan spin tersebut tergantung pada kekuatan
medan magnet eksternal (Bo). Makin kuat medan magnet eksternal yang digunakan,
makin besar ∆E antara tingkatan-tingkatan spin tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1039" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;
height:125.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.png"
o:title="jhgkjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="167" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain itu besarnya pemisahan tingkat
energi juga tergantung pada macamnya inti yang terlibat dalam proses tersebut.
Masing-masing inti mempunyai ratio momen magnetic/momen sudut yang berbeda,
karena mempunyai muatan dan massa yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">FENOMENA
NMR : Absorbsi energy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Fenomena NMR terjadi apabila inti yang
searah dengan medan magnet eksternal dibuat mengabsorbsi energi (radiasi
elektromagnetik), sehingga berubah orientasi spinnya, yaitu menjadi berlawanan
dengan medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1038" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:359.25pt;
height:123.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.png"
o:title="jhgkjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="165" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="479" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Besarnya
energi yang diabsorbsi harus persis sama dengan FE antara dua tingkatan spin
yang terlibat dalam proses tersebut, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:94.5pt;height:24.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image032.png"
o:title="kjllj.khljk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="33" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1037" width="126" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan
menghubungkan persamaan (1) dan (2), maka besarnya frekuensi (H) agar suatu
inti beresonansi dapat ditentukan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1036" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:90.75pt;height:35.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image034.png"
o:title="kllj.kjhk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="47" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image035.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1036" width="121" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gambar
fenomena NMR :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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style='width:353.25pt;height:106.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.png"
o:title="GFGBVMJHG"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="142" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1035" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel
: Kekuatan medan magnet eksternal, Bo,<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">beserta harga frekuensi agar inti
tertentu dapat beresonansi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:4in;height:158.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image038.png"
o:title="ikljioiok"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="211" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1034" width="384" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misal:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1H
dan 2H walaupun sama-sama diberi Bo = 10.000 Gauss, frekuensi resonansinya
berbeda karena C nya berbeda. Karakteristik ini bisa dipakai untuk mendeteksi
adanya proton yang terikat pada heteroatom. Caranya : Sampel proton yang
terikat pada atom O (O-H) jika dirunning dengan alat yang telah diset H = 42,6
MHz (frekuensi resonansi untuk 1H) → maka akan muncul peak 1H (proton). Jika
sampel tersebut digojog dengan D<sub>2</sub>O maka OH akan digantikan dengan OD
sehingga kalau alatnya diset tetap pada H = 42,6 MHz, maka tidak akan muncul
peak proton, karena 1H telah digantikan dengan D. Karena inti bermuatan,
presesi akan menimbulkan medan listrik yang berosilasi (berputar) pada
frekuensi yang sama dengan frekuensi presesi. Kalau gelombang radio yang
berfrekuensi sama dengan frekuensi osilasi dari medan listrik proton yang
berpresesi diberikan, maka sejumlah energi tersebut akan diabsorbsi, yang menyebabkan
terjadinya perubahan spin dari searah menjadi berlawanan arah dengan medan magnet
eksternal. Peristiwa ini disebut resonansi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dan
besarnya ∆E yang diabsorbsi bisa diukur dan diubah menjadi spectra :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1033" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:420pt;height:98.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image040.png"
o:title="jhfdiojugiofhbgj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="131" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1033" width="560" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PRINSIP
NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip dari NMR didasarkan pada
absorpsi radiasi elektromagnetik pada daerah frekuensi radio (4600) MHz atau
panjang gelombang 75-0,5 m oleh partikel (inti atom) yang berputar di dalam
medan magnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Proton yang bergasing yang diikuti oleh pergasingan kedua
elektronnya akan memberikan masing-masing vektor momen sudut (I) dan vektor
momen magnet</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Perubahan vektor momen sudut dan momen magnet akan
dititikberatkan pada inti atom saja,<span>
</span>karena pada inti atom ada sisa momen spin (sisa pergasingan pada atom yang
bersifat magnetik).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1032"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="scan0001" style='width:315.75pt;height:101.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square' filled="t" fillcolor="#1f497d">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image042.jpg"
o:title="scan0001"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="scan0001" height="135" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image043.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="421" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Bilangan kuantum spin (I) memberikan harga yang
bervariasi: 0,1/2/11/2…9/2, ini tergantung dari macam inti atomnya.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Bilangan spin (I) menunjukkan jumlah orientasi suatu
inti jika menerima<span> </span>medan magnet seragam
dari luar, yang sesuai dengan rumus 2I+I.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Setiap orientasi menunjukkan tingkat energi dari
inti tersebut, orientasi tersebut antara lain orientasi paralel dan orientasi
anti paralel, orientasi momen magnet paralel sedikit lebih stabil dibandingkan
keadaan anti paralel.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gambar fenomena
NMR :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_7" o:spid="_x0000_i1031"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:353.25pt;height:106.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.png"
o:title="GFGBVMJHG"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="142" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image044.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Setiap inti dikelilingi oleh awan elektron yang
selalu bergerak. Pada pengaruh medan magnet, elektron-elektron ini dipaksa
bersirkulasi sedemikian rupa dalam usaha melawan medan magnet tersebut.
Akibatnya, inti seakan-akan mendapat efek perisai (shielding effect) terhadap
medan magnet luar (H<sub>o</sub>).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span> </span>Karena setiap
proton di dalam molekul zat organik beranekaragam, maka setiap proton di dalam
molekul zat organik<span> </span>memberikan tetapan
perisai (σ) yang berbeda.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_i1030"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:321pt;height:131.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image045.png"
o:title="j,bjkhkj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="175" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image046.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="428" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek polar dan efek induksi sangat berpengaruh
terhadap tetapan perisai (σ) yang menunjukan kerapatan elektron terhadap
proton. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Contoh : pada molekul CH<sub>3</sub>OH (metanol ),
proton pada OH akan lebih mudah dibalik (beresonansi), karena menyerap Ho lebih
rendah jadi efek induksinya lemah, karena tidak terperisai (deshielding) .
Sebaliknya proton pada CH<sub>3 </sub>protonnya mengalami induksi yang kuat,
karena terperisai (shielding).<b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Karena setiap proton memberikan tetapan perisai (σ)
maka setiap proton juga memberikan efek perisai yang dinyatakan sebagai :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 164.75pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek perisai = σ . Ho<span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek perisai sudah jelas akan mengurangi medan
magnet yang digunakan ( Ho) dan besarnya yang dirasakan ini dinyatakan sebagai
(HN) yang dinyatakan sebagi :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">HN = Ho – σHo = Ho (1- σ ).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPIN-SPIN SPLITTING / SPIN-SPIN COUPLING<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Secara empiris, spin-spin splitting
dapat dijelaskan dengan aturan (n + 1) : Tiap jenis proton “merasakan” sejumlah
proton ekivalen (n) yang terikat pada atom karbon yang bertetangga dengan atom
karbon yang mengikat proton tersebut sehingga resonansi dari proton pecah/split
menjadi n+1 sinyal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_11" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:359.25pt;
height:123pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image047.png"
o:title="4"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="164" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image048.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="479" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila proton A mempunyai 2 proton
tetangga yang ekivalen, maka sinyal resonansinya akan di-split menjadi triplet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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id="Picture_x0020_12" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:184.5pt;
height:111.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image049.png"
o:title="5"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="149" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image050.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="246" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila proton A mempunyai 2 proton
tetangga yang ekivalen, maka sinyal resonansinya akan di-split menjadi kwartet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_13" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:289.5pt;
height:169.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
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o:title="6"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="226" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image052.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="386" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Segitiga pascal : Rasio intensitas sinyal hasil
splitting sesuai dengan segitiga pascal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:264.75pt;height:188.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image053.png"
o:title="7"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="251" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image054.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_14" width="353" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumentasi
Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;height:177pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image055.png"
o:title="jijikkk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="236" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image056.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Komponen-komponennya :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Magnet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Generator
“sweep”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Transmiter
RF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
transmitter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
penerima<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
“sweep”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Deterktor
& penerima RF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rekorder<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sampel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumentasi
NMR diantaranya :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempat
Sampel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempat
sampel berupa tabung gelas yang terbentuk silindris, diletakan diantara dua
kutub magnet. Sampel dilarutkan dalam pelarut yang tak mengandung proton seperti
CCl<sub>4 </sub>, CDCl<sub>3 </sub>, D<sub>2</sub>O, atau acetonitril dan
sejumlah kecil TMS ditambahkan sebagai standar internal, kemudian dimasukan ke
dalam tempat sampel. Sampel kemudian diputar sekitar sumbunya untuk
mengusahakan agar semua bagian dari larutan terkena medan magnet yang sama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Celah
Magnet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Magnet
terdiri dari dua bagian, magnet pokok mempunyai kekuatan sekitar 14.100 Gauss,
dan ia ditutup oleh potongan-potongan kecil kutub electromagnet. Pada celah
magnet terdapat kumparan yang dihubungkan dengan ossilator frekuensi radio (Rf)
60 MHz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ossilator
frekuensi Radio<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ossilator
frekuensi radio akan memberikan tenaga elektromagnetik sebesar 60 MHz melalui
kumparan yang dihubungkan pada celah sampel. Kumparan selanjutnya memberikan
tenaga elektromagnetik yang digunakan untuk mengubah orientasi perputaran
proton. Kebanyakan spektropotometer NMR menggunakan sinyal frekuensi RF tetap
dan mengubah-ubah kekuatan medan magnet untuk membawa setiap proton mengalami
resonansi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Detector
Radio Frekuensi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
detector berada tegak lurus dengan kumparan ossilaor RF. Bila ada tenaga yang
diserap, kumparan detector tidak menangkap tenaga yang diberikan oleh kumparan
ossilator RF. Bila sampel menyerap tenaga, maka putaran inti akan menghasilkan
sinyal frekuensi radio pada bidang kumparan detector, dan alat memberikan
respon ke pencatatan sebagai sinyal resonansi atau puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pencatat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pencatat
berfungsi untuk menangkap sinyal dari detector yang mengubahnya sebagai sinyal
resonansi atau puncak. Sebelum sinyal sampai ke pencatat biasanya dilewatkan
terlebih dahulu ke audio amflier untuk menggandakan sinyal, sehingga menjadi
lebih Nampak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegunaan
Spektoskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrometri Resonansi Magnetik Inti
pada umumnya digunakan untuk :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menentukan
jumlah proton yang dimiliki lingkungan kimia yang sama pada suatu senyawa
organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mengetahui
informasi mengenai struktur suatu senyawa organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektoskopi NMR dapat digunakan
sebagai alat sidik jari.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrofotometri
Resonansi Magnetik Inti Proton berguna untuk penentuan struktur molekul
organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh
Interpretasi Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">CARA
MEMPEROLEH SPEKTRUM NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada 2 teknik untuk
memperoleh spektrum NMR yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Continous
Wave (CW).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pulse
Fourier Transform (PFT atau FT).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
teknik “Continous Wave” Medan magnet eksternal, Bo divariasi, sedang frekuensi
radionya tetap (field-sweep). Atau, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Frekuensi
radio divariasi, sedang medan magnet eksternalnya tetap (frequency-sweep).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebanyakan instrument CW yang modern
menggunakan model “frequency-sweep”. Dalam teknik ini, frekuensi radio tidak
divariasi dalam range yang dapat mencakup semua inti yang secara magnetik aktif
dan “possible”, tetapi hanya divariasi dalam range yang sempit sekitar
frekuensi resonansi dari inti yang bersangkutan.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misalnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
memperoleh spektra 1H-NMR menggunakan suatu magnet dengan Bo = 21.150 gauss,
frekuensi divariasi sekitar 90 MHz misalnya dari 90.000.000-90.001.000 Hz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
memperoleh spektra 13C-NMR dengan kekuatan medan magnet yang sama, frekuensi
divariasi pada range yang sempit sekitar 22,6 MHz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Suatu instrumen dengan magnet
berkekuatan 21,50 gauss, dimana 1H beresonansi pada 90 MHz, disebut suatu
spectrometer 90 MHz. Frekuensi resonansi dari 1H disebut sebagai frekuensi
operasional dari instrumen. Dalam teknik CW ini, masing-masing tipe hidrogen
(atau karbon) dieksitasikan sendiri- sendiri, sehingga dibutuhkan waktu yang
agak lama (beberapa menit) untuk memperoleh spectrum NMR secara keseluruhan
(lengkap). Pada teknik FT semua frekuensi diberikan sekaligus sehingga semua
inti mengalami resonansi, intensitas sinyal hampir sama dengan noise, lalu
dirunning berulang-ulang sehingga diperoleh intensitas sinyal yang lebih besar
dari pada noise, sehingga peak pada FT akan terlihat lebih jelas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemudian sinyal-sinyal tersebut
dipilah-pilah sehingga inti tertentu yang beresonansi pada H tertentu muncul
sebagai peak yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Langkah-langkah menginterpretasikan
spekta NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">jumlah sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang
adanya beberapa macam perbedaan dari proton-proton yang terdapat dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kedudukan sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan sesuatu
tentang lingkungan elektronik dari setiap macam proton.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intensitas sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang
berapa banyak proton dari setiap macxam proton yang ada.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemecahan ( splinting ) dari sebuah
sinyal menjadi beberapa puncak,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang lingkungan dari sebuah proton
dengan lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada
spectrum H-NMR dalam elusidasi struktur perlu diperhatikan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Luas di bawah puncak yang biasanya
dinyatakan dengan intergrasi untuk melihat perbandingan jumlah proton pada
masing-masing puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terjadinya spin-spin splinting yang
mengikuti segitiga pascal. Interaksi antara ikatan electron yang mempunyai
kencerungan berpasangan spin dari electron dengan electron lainnya pada proton
yang berdekatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Geseran kimia (chemical shift),
yaitu kedudukan proton dalam spektum tersebut.</span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelebihan
Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelebihan
dari alat ini adalah dapat mengidentifikasi adanya senyawa organic dalam
sampel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">REFERENSI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Khopkar, S.M., <i>Konsep Dasar Kimia Analitik</i>,
275-286,389-400, UI Press, Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sastrohamidjojo, Hardjono, 2001, <i>spektroskopi</i>,
415, Liberty, Yogyakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Silverstein, R.M., 1991, <i>Penyelidikan Spektrometrik
Senyawa Organik</i>, Edisi 4, diterjemahkan olehHartomo, 249-278, Erlangga,
Jakarta.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Trianto, Agus. 2001. <i>Jurnal
Study Penggunaan Spektrum NMR Pada Elusidasi Struktur Lantanculin S.</i>Universitas
Diponegoro. Tidak diterbitkan.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-4246463020231653612012-10-01T07:48:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:48:14.272-07:00NMR<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 150%;">RESUME<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
RESONANSI MAGNETIK INTI (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Diajukan
untuk memenuhi tugas individu mata kuliah Kimia Instrumen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disusun
Oleh:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Iim
Imas (1209208045)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PENDIDIKAN
KIMIA B/ VI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">FAKULTAS
TARBIYAH DAN KEGURUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UNIVERSITAS
ISLAM NEGERI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SUNAN
GUNUNG DJATI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">BANDUNG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2012<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
RESONANSI MAGNETIK INTI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektroskopi
Resonansi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">NMR
(Nuclear Magnetic Resonance), spektroskopi NMR berhubungan dengan sifat magnet
dari inti atom. Teknik spektroskopi adalah salah satu teknik analisis
kimia-fisika yang mengamati tentang interaksi atom atau molekul dengan radiasi
elektromagnetik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
tahun 1945 dua group dari serjana fisika furcell, Torry,dan Pound (Haward
University) dan block, Hansen, dan Packard (Stanford University) menemukan
fenomena inti yang mempunyai proton dan electron memiliki medan magnet. Dalam
magnet yang kuat inti-inti dianggap berorientasi spesifik dengan tenaga
potensial yang sesuai. Setiap proton mempunyai tenaga putaran yang sama dan
putaran-putarannya mempunyai arah orientasi seimbang. Oleh karena medan magnet,
putaran-putaran proton diarahkan baik paralel atau anti paralel terhadap medan
magnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Block
dan Purcell menemukan cara-cara untuk mengetahui sejumlah kecil dari tenaga
yang diserap atau dipancarkan, seperti kalau inti-inti loncat dari tenaga satu
ke tenaga lainnya. Dari penemuan tersebut maka sejak tahun 1950 resonansi
magnetik inti (NMR) mulai digunakan untuk menentukan rumus struktur senyawa.
Ada dua macam NMR yang dikenal. Diantaranya NMR proton dan NMR karbon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">SPEKTROSKOPI
PROTON H-NMR</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektroskopi
NMR proton merupakan sarana untuk menentukan stuktur senyawa organik dengan
mengukur momen magnet atom hydrogen. Pada kebanyakan senyawa, atom hydrogen
terikat pada gugus yang berlainan ( seperti –CH<sub>2</sub>-, -CH<sub>3-, </sub>-CHO,
-NH<sub>2</sub>, -CHOH- ) dan spektum NMR proton merupakan rekaman sejumlah
atom hydrogen yang berada dalam lingkungan yang berlainan. Spektum ini tidak
dapat memberikan keterangan langsung mengenai sifat kerangka karbon molekul
sehingga diperlukan spektum NMR C-13.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Larutan
cuplikan dalam pelarut lembam ditempatkan diantara kutub magnet yang kuat, dan
proton mengalami pergeseran kimia yang berlainan sesuai dengan lingkungan
molekulnya di dalam molekul. Ini diukur dalam radar NMR, biasanya
tetrametilsilan (TMS) digunakan sebagai acuan, yaitu senyawa lembam yang
ditambahkan ke dalam larutan cuplikan tanpa ada kemungkinan terjadinya reaksi
kimia dengan senyawa yang akan diukur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adapun
pelarut yang biasanya digunakan yaitu karbontetraklorida, deuterokloroform,
deuteriumoksida, deuteroaseton, atau dimetilsulfoksida terdeuterasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektoskopi
NMR dapat digunakan sebagai alat sidik jari.dan juga memberikan keterangan
tentang jumlah setiap tipe hydrogen. Ia juga memberikan keterangan tentang
sifat lingkungan dari setiap atom hydrogen tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kegunaan
yang besar dari resonansi magnet inti adalah karena tidak setiap proton dalam
molekul beresonansi pada frekwensi yang identik sama. Ini disebabkan oleh
kenyataan bahwa berbagai proton dalam molekul dikelilingi elektron dan
menunjukan sedikit perbedaan lingkungan elektronik dari 1 proton ke proton
lainnya. Proton-proton dilindungi oleh elektron-elektron disekelilingnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spectrum
NMR tidak hanya dapat membedakan beberapa banyak proton yang berbeda dalam
molekul, teteapi ia juga mengungkapkan berapa banyak setiap tipe proton
berbeda yang terkandung dalam molekulnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada spektormetri NMR integrasi
sangat penting. Harga integrasi menunjukkan daerah atau luas puncak dari
tiap-tiap proton. Sedangkan luas daerah atau luas puncak tersebut sesuai dengan
jumlah proton. Dengan demikian perbandingan tiap integrasi proton sama dengan
perbandingan jumlah proton dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Daerah geseran kimia proton bernilai antara 0 – 200
ppm, berikut daerah geseran kimia yang penting untuk beberapa jenis karbon :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
KARBON-13<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sinyal
dari atom C<sup>13</sup> dalam alat NMR dapat dideteksi karena adanya
sejumlah kecil atom karbon C-13 bersama-sama C-12. momen magnet yang dihasilkan
oleh <sup>13</sup>C lebih kecil, bila dibandingkan dengan momen magnet
proton, berarti sinyalnya jauh lebih lemah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pelarut
yang biasanya digunakan serupa dengan NMR proton, tetapi jangka resonansi C jauh
lebih besar. Sehingga spektum NMR-<sup>13</sup>C jauh lebih teresolusi, umumnya
setiap karbon dalam molekul dapat ditetapkan sinyalnya. Sama halnya seperti
pada NMR proton, atom karbon penyulihannya berlainan akan menunjukkan geseran
dalam jangka yang khas. Spectrum NMR<sup>13</sup>C pada hakikatnya merupakan
pelengkap NMR proton.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada
spectrum C-NMR dalam elusidasi struktur perlu diperhatikan :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Luas di bawah puncak yang biasanya
dinyatakan dengan intergrasi untuk melihat perbandingan jumlah carbon yang
ekuivalen secara magnetic pada masing-masing puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terjadinya spin-spin splinting yang
mengikuti segitiga pascal. Interaksi antara ikatan electron yang mempunyai
kencerungan berpasangan spin dari electron dengan electron lainnya pada proton
yang diikat. Spin-spin splinting ini sering dihilangkan dengan cara di
dekloping guna menghindari puncak-puncak yang tumpang tindih.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Geseran kimia (chemical shift),
yaitu kedudukan karbon dalam spektum tersebut. Ini juga menggambarkan letak dan
kedudukan karbon dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cirri-ciri
Spektroskopi <sub>14</sub>C NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektroskopi <sub>13</sub>C NMR
menghasilkan informasi struktur mengenai karbon-karbon dalam sebuah molekul
organik. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam spektroskopi 1H NMR kita bekerja
dengan isotop hidrogen alamiah dengan kelimpahan 99,985 %, atom hidrogen
alamiah adalah 1H,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Atom karbon dalam alam 98,9 % adalah
12C, suatu isotop yang intinya tak mempunyai spin (I = 0). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karbon -13 hanya merupakan 1,1 % atom
karbon yang terdapat di alam ( I = ½). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Transisi dari paralel ke antiparalel
dari sebuah inti 13C adalah transisi energi rendah. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektra 13C NMR hanya dapat diperoleh
dengan spektrometer yang sangat sensitif. Kelimpahan 13C yang rendah akan
mengurangi kerumitan spektra 13C dibandingkan spektra 1H NMR. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">interaksi antar karbon yang berdekatan
diabaikan, tetapi karbon dapat berinteraksi dengan proton yang diikat oleh
masing-masing karbon yang menyebabkan terjadinya spliting yang menunjukkan
puncak (n + 1), n = jumlah H, oleh karena itu sinyal masing-masing karbon dari
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metil (CH3-C) akan muncul 4 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metilen (-CH2-) akan muncul 3 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metil (-CH-) akan muncul 2 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
kuarterner (-C-) akan muncul 1</span><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">puncak,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk membedakan jenis karbon, metil,
metilen, metin, dan karbon kuarterner digunakan analisis spektrum DEPT 13C NMR
atau NMR dua dimensi (HMQC = korelasi antara proton-karbon satu ikatan). Ada
tiga jenis spektrum DEPT 13C NMR, yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DEPT
90o= hanya muncul sinyal C-H.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DEPT
135o= muncul sinyal CH dan CH3masing-masing berharga positif, sedangkan sinyal
CH2akan muncul sebagai sinyal berharga negatif.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip
Kerja Spektroskopi Resonansi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip
yang mendasari kerja dari NMR yaitu </span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;">penyerapan
energi oleh partikel yang sedang berputar di dalam medan magnet yang kuat </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">sehingga
nantinya medan magnet yang sesuai dengan molekul akan dikonversi menjadi
spektra NMR sehingga </span><i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;">struktur
senyawa / rumus bangun molekul senyawa organik</span></i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">dapat teridentifikasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrometri
NMR pada dasarnya merupakan spektrometri absorbsi, sebagaimana spektrometri
infra merah maupun ultraviolet. Pada kondisi yang sesuai, suatu sampel dapat
mengabsorpsi radiasi elektromagnetik daerah frekuensi radio, pada frekuensi yang
tergantung dari sifat-sifat sampel. Suatu plot dari frekuensi puncak-puncak
absorbsi versus intensitas puncak memberikan suatu spektrum NMR. Dalam NMR yang
diukur adalah perbedaan frekuensi antara suatu jenis proton dengan frekuensi
resonansi proton senyawa pembanding (reference). Senyawa ini disebut sebagai
standar internal dan ditambahkan ke dalam sample sebelum me”running” NMR.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pergeseran
kimia</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(CHEMICAL SHIFT)</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>adalah pengukuran medan dalam keadaan bebas.
Semua proton-proton dalam satu molekul yang ada dalam lingkungan kimia yang
serupa kadang-kadang menunjukkan pergeseran kimia yang sama. Setiap senyawa
memberikan penaikan menjadi puncak absorbsi tunggal dalam spektrum NMR.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa
yang digunakan sebagai senyawa reference tersebut adalah : Tetra Metil Silan
(TMS).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar Tetra Metil Silan (TMS)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1051" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:168.75pt;height:89.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.png"
o:title="jhhjhbnjn"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="119" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1051" width="225" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
memberikan sinyal yang tajam (singlet) dengan intensitas tinggi, karena
mempunyai 12 proton yang ekuivalen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
mengabsorbsi pada ‘higher field’ dibanding hampir semua proton organik (Si
bersifat elektropositif, sehingga proton-proton dalam TMS sangat terlindungi
(shielded).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bersifat
inert.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mempunyai
titik didih yang rendah (27<sup>o</sup>C), sehingga mudah dihilangkan jika
digunakan untuk dua kali pengujian senyawa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Larut
dalam kebanyakan pelarut organic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
tidak larut dalam air maupun D2O. Dalam hal ini TMS dapat diperlakukan sebagai
‘external standard’. Atau dapat juga dipakai garam natrium dari asam 3-
(trimetilsilil)-propanasulfonat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(CH3)3SiCH2CH2CH2SO3-Na+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo12; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berapa
Hz bergesernya suatu proton dari TMS akan tergantung pada kekuatan medan magnet
eksternal yang digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo12; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Semakin
besar medan magnet yang digunakan, semakin besar perbedaan frekuensi dari TMS.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1050" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:311.25pt;height:141.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.png"
o:title="hgjhgmh"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="189" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1050" width="415" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1049" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:303pt;height:164.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.png"
o:title="nbj,nhkjnhvhg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="219" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1049" width="404" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hal
ini akan menyulitkan kita apabila kita ingin membandingkan data (spectrum) yang
diperoleh dengan spektrometer NMR yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Maka
digunakan parameter baru yang tidak tergantung pada kekuatan medan magnet
eksternal yang digunakan, yaitu : chemical shift, geseran kimia (ᵟ)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1048" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:267pt;height:50.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.png"
o:title="ojkjjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="67" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1048" width="356" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari
contoh spectra di atas, maka:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1047" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;height:132.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png"
o:title="mn ,mn m"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="177" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1047" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Chemical
shift juga bisa dinyatakan dalam skala ˠ (tau), dimana ˠ = 10 – ᵟ<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
spektrum NMR, luas daerah di bawah puncak (peak) akan proposional dengan jumlah
hidrogen yang menimbulkan/menghasilkan peak tersebut. Integrasi peak biasanya
ditunjukkan sebagi suatu garis integrasi (integration line). Tinggi integrasi
di atas suatu peak secara langsung proporsional dengan luas daerah di bawah
peak tersebut. Tinggi garis integrasi tidak menunjukkan jumlah absolut dari
proton, tetapi memberikan jumlah relatif dari masing-masing tipe hidrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1046" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:332.25pt;height:171pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png"
o:title="gfgbhgbn"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="228" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1046" width="443" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1045" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:339pt;height:1in;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.png"
o:title="1"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="96" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1045" width="452" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karena
jumlah total proton dalam benzil asetat ada 10, maka jumlah proton yang menghasilkan
peak-peak pada ᵟ 7,3 ; ᵟ 5,1 dan ᵟ 2,0 berturut-turut adalah 5/10 x 10 = 5;
2/10 x 10 = 2 dan 3/10 x 10 = 3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumen
NMR yang modern tidak hanya memperlihatkan garis integrasi pada spectrum yang
dihasilkan , tetapi juga memberikan bilangan integrasi (integration number),
yang memberikan jumlah relatif hidrogen di bawah suatu peak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_9" o:spid="_x0000_i1044"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:353.25pt;height:190.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.png"
o:title="2"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="254" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel:
Bilangan kuantum spin dan kelimpahannya di alam dari beberapa inti atom<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1043" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:468pt;height:169.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.png"
o:title="ipong"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="226" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1043" width="624" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misal:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">12C → jumlah proton = 6
(genap)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">No massa = 12 (genap)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sehingga tidak muncul
pada spektra NMR (NMR negatif) Jika I = 0 →tidak aktif NMR proton Kelimpahan di
alam:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1H = 99,985 → sebagian
besar proton di alam adalah radioaktif →aktif NMR <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hampir semua proton
aktif <span> </span>NMR dan kelimpahannya di alam
tinggi, sehingga kemungkinan proton aktif <span> </span>NMR berdekatan dengan proton aktif NMR dalam
molekul-molekul di alam adalah besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">13C = 1,1 →sangat
sedikit →aktif NMR <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Atom
C yang aktif <span> </span>NMR kelimpahannya di alam
hanya sedikit, sehingga kemungkinan C aktif NMR berdekatan dengan C aktif NMR
dalam molekul-molekul adalah kecil. Dalam keadaan normal (inti tidak
dikenai/diletakkan pada medan magnet eksternal), semua orientasi dari suatu
inti berenergi sama (degenerasi). Bila inti dikenai medan magnet, maka
orientasi/tingkat spin tidak lagi berenergi sama. Hal ini disebabkan karena
inti mempunyai momen magnetik (.) yang ditimbulkan oleh berpusingnya muatan.
Jumlah orientasi yang mungkin bagi suatu inti bila padanya dikenakan medan
magnet homogen eksternal ditentukan oleh bilangan kuantum spin (I) dari inti
tersebut, sesuai dengan persamaan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1042" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:181.5pt;height:24pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.png"
o:title="12"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="32" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1042" width="242" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jadi
untuk inti 1H dan <sup>13</sup>C, dengan I = ½, masing-masing akan mempunyai
dua macam orientasi (2 x ½ + 1 = 2), yaitu + ½ (searah dengan medan magnet) dan
– ½ (berlawanan arah/melawan medan magnet). Tingkatan spin + ½ berenergi lebih
rendah karena searah dengan medan magnet karena searah dengan medan magnet
eksternal, sedang tingkatan spin – ½ berenergi lebih tinggi karena melawan
medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1041" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:447pt;
height:161.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.png"
o:title="redttythj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="215" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="596" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi spin inti:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi random (dalam
ketiadaan medan magnet eksternal).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi spesifik
(dalam medan magnet eksternal, Ho). Kebanyakan spin searah dengan medan magnet
eksternal (paralel), dan sebagian antiparalel (melawan Ho). Tingkat spin
paralel mempunyai energi yang lebih rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perbedaan
energi antara dua tingkatan spin tersebut dinyatakan dengan persamaan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1040"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:121.5pt;height:23.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image027.png"
o:title="dghfg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="31" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="162" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">h = tetapan Planck<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ˠ= “magnetogeryc ratio”
(tetapan bagi tiap-tiap inti)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bo
= kekuatan medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari persamaan tersebut terlihat bahwa
perbedaan energi antara dua tingkatan spin tersebut tergantung pada kekuatan
medan magnet eksternal (Bo). Makin kuat medan magnet eksternal yang digunakan,
makin besar ∆E antara tingkatan-tingkatan spin tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1039" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;
height:125.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.png"
o:title="jhgkjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="167" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain itu besarnya pemisahan tingkat
energi juga tergantung pada macamnya inti yang terlibat dalam proses tersebut.
Masing-masing inti mempunyai ratio momen magnetic/momen sudut yang berbeda,
karena mempunyai muatan dan massa yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">FENOMENA
NMR : Absorbsi energy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Fenomena NMR terjadi apabila inti yang
searah dengan medan magnet eksternal dibuat mengabsorbsi energi (radiasi
elektromagnetik), sehingga berubah orientasi spinnya, yaitu menjadi berlawanan
dengan medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1038" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:359.25pt;
height:123.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.png"
o:title="jhgkjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="165" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="479" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Besarnya
energi yang diabsorbsi harus persis sama dengan FE antara dua tingkatan spin
yang terlibat dalam proses tersebut, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:94.5pt;height:24.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image032.png"
o:title="kjllj.khljk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="33" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1037" width="126" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan
menghubungkan persamaan (1) dan (2), maka besarnya frekuensi (H) agar suatu
inti beresonansi dapat ditentukan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1036" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:90.75pt;height:35.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image034.png"
o:title="kllj.kjhk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="47" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image035.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1036" width="121" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gambar
fenomena NMR :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1035" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:353.25pt;height:106.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.png"
o:title="GFGBVMJHG"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="142" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1035" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel
: Kekuatan medan magnet eksternal, Bo,<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">beserta harga frekuensi agar inti
tertentu dapat beresonansi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:4in;height:158.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image038.png"
o:title="ikljioiok"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="211" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1034" width="384" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misal:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1H
dan 2H walaupun sama-sama diberi Bo = 10.000 Gauss, frekuensi resonansinya
berbeda karena C nya berbeda. Karakteristik ini bisa dipakai untuk mendeteksi
adanya proton yang terikat pada heteroatom. Caranya : Sampel proton yang
terikat pada atom O (O-H) jika dirunning dengan alat yang telah diset H = 42,6
MHz (frekuensi resonansi untuk 1H) → maka akan muncul peak 1H (proton). Jika
sampel tersebut digojog dengan D<sub>2</sub>O maka OH akan digantikan dengan OD
sehingga kalau alatnya diset tetap pada H = 42,6 MHz, maka tidak akan muncul
peak proton, karena 1H telah digantikan dengan D. Karena inti bermuatan,
presesi akan menimbulkan medan listrik yang berosilasi (berputar) pada
frekuensi yang sama dengan frekuensi presesi. Kalau gelombang radio yang
berfrekuensi sama dengan frekuensi osilasi dari medan listrik proton yang
berpresesi diberikan, maka sejumlah energi tersebut akan diabsorbsi, yang menyebabkan
terjadinya perubahan spin dari searah menjadi berlawanan arah dengan medan magnet
eksternal. Peristiwa ini disebut resonansi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dan
besarnya ∆E yang diabsorbsi bisa diukur dan diubah menjadi spectra :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1033" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:420pt;height:98.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image040.png"
o:title="jhfdiojugiofhbgj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="131" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1033" width="560" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PRINSIP
NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip dari NMR didasarkan pada
absorpsi radiasi elektromagnetik pada daerah frekuensi radio (4600) MHz atau
panjang gelombang 75-0,5 m oleh partikel (inti atom) yang berputar di dalam
medan magnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Proton yang bergasing yang diikuti oleh pergasingan kedua
elektronnya akan memberikan masing-masing vektor momen sudut (I) dan vektor
momen magnet</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Perubahan vektor momen sudut dan momen magnet akan
dititikberatkan pada inti atom saja,<span>
</span>karena pada inti atom ada sisa momen spin (sisa pergasingan pada atom yang
bersifat magnetik).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1032"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="scan0001" style='width:315.75pt;height:101.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square' filled="t" fillcolor="#1f497d">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image042.jpg"
o:title="scan0001"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="scan0001" height="135" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image043.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="421" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Bilangan kuantum spin (I) memberikan harga yang
bervariasi: 0,1/2/11/2…9/2, ini tergantung dari macam inti atomnya.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Bilangan spin (I) menunjukkan jumlah orientasi suatu
inti jika menerima<span> </span>medan magnet seragam
dari luar, yang sesuai dengan rumus 2I+I.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Setiap orientasi menunjukkan tingkat energi dari
inti tersebut, orientasi tersebut antara lain orientasi paralel dan orientasi
anti paralel, orientasi momen magnet paralel sedikit lebih stabil dibandingkan
keadaan anti paralel.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gambar fenomena
NMR :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_7" o:spid="_x0000_i1031"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:353.25pt;height:106.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.png"
o:title="GFGBVMJHG"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="142" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image044.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Setiap inti dikelilingi oleh awan elektron yang
selalu bergerak. Pada pengaruh medan magnet, elektron-elektron ini dipaksa
bersirkulasi sedemikian rupa dalam usaha melawan medan magnet tersebut.
Akibatnya, inti seakan-akan mendapat efek perisai (shielding effect) terhadap
medan magnet luar (H<sub>o</sub>).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span> </span>Karena setiap
proton di dalam molekul zat organik beranekaragam, maka setiap proton di dalam
molekul zat organik<span> </span>memberikan tetapan
perisai (σ) yang berbeda.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_i1030"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:321pt;height:131.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image045.png"
o:title="j,bjkhkj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="175" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image046.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="428" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek polar dan efek induksi sangat berpengaruh
terhadap tetapan perisai (σ) yang menunjukan kerapatan elektron terhadap
proton. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Contoh : pada molekul CH<sub>3</sub>OH (metanol ),
proton pada OH akan lebih mudah dibalik (beresonansi), karena menyerap Ho lebih
rendah jadi efek induksinya lemah, karena tidak terperisai (deshielding) .
Sebaliknya proton pada CH<sub>3 </sub>protonnya mengalami induksi yang kuat,
karena terperisai (shielding).<b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Karena setiap proton memberikan tetapan perisai (σ)
maka setiap proton juga memberikan efek perisai yang dinyatakan sebagai :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 164.75pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek perisai = σ . Ho<span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek perisai sudah jelas akan mengurangi medan
magnet yang digunakan ( Ho) dan besarnya yang dirasakan ini dinyatakan sebagai
(HN) yang dinyatakan sebagi :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">HN = Ho – σHo = Ho (1- σ ).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPIN-SPIN SPLITTING / SPIN-SPIN COUPLING<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Secara empiris, spin-spin splitting
dapat dijelaskan dengan aturan (n + 1) : Tiap jenis proton “merasakan” sejumlah
proton ekivalen (n) yang terikat pada atom karbon yang bertetangga dengan atom
karbon yang mengikat proton tersebut sehingga resonansi dari proton pecah/split
menjadi n+1 sinyal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_11" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:359.25pt;
height:123pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image047.png"
o:title="4"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="164" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image048.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="479" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila proton A mempunyai 2 proton
tetangga yang ekivalen, maka sinyal resonansinya akan di-split menjadi triplet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_12" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:184.5pt;
height:111.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image049.png"
o:title="5"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="149" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image050.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="246" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila proton A mempunyai 2 proton
tetangga yang ekivalen, maka sinyal resonansinya akan di-split menjadi kwartet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_13" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:289.5pt;
height:169.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image051.png"
o:title="6"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="226" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image052.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="386" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Segitiga pascal : Rasio intensitas sinyal hasil
splitting sesuai dengan segitiga pascal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_14"
o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:264.75pt;height:188.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image053.png"
o:title="7"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="251" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image054.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_14" width="353" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumentasi
Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;height:177pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image055.png"
o:title="jijikkk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="236" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image056.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Komponen-komponennya :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Magnet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Generator
“sweep”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Transmiter
RF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
transmitter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
penerima<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
“sweep”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Deterktor
& penerima RF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rekorder<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sampel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumentasi
NMR diantaranya :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempat
Sampel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempat
sampel berupa tabung gelas yang terbentuk silindris, diletakan diantara dua
kutub magnet. Sampel dilarutkan dalam pelarut yang tak mengandung proton seperti
CCl<sub>4 </sub>, CDCl<sub>3 </sub>, D<sub>2</sub>O, atau acetonitril dan
sejumlah kecil TMS ditambahkan sebagai standar internal, kemudian dimasukan ke
dalam tempat sampel. Sampel kemudian diputar sekitar sumbunya untuk
mengusahakan agar semua bagian dari larutan terkena medan magnet yang sama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Celah
Magnet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Magnet
terdiri dari dua bagian, magnet pokok mempunyai kekuatan sekitar 14.100 Gauss,
dan ia ditutup oleh potongan-potongan kecil kutub electromagnet. Pada celah
magnet terdapat kumparan yang dihubungkan dengan ossilator frekuensi radio (Rf)
60 MHz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ossilator
frekuensi Radio<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ossilator
frekuensi radio akan memberikan tenaga elektromagnetik sebesar 60 MHz melalui
kumparan yang dihubungkan pada celah sampel. Kumparan selanjutnya memberikan
tenaga elektromagnetik yang digunakan untuk mengubah orientasi perputaran
proton. Kebanyakan spektropotometer NMR menggunakan sinyal frekuensi RF tetap
dan mengubah-ubah kekuatan medan magnet untuk membawa setiap proton mengalami
resonansi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Detector
Radio Frekuensi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
detector berada tegak lurus dengan kumparan ossilaor RF. Bila ada tenaga yang
diserap, kumparan detector tidak menangkap tenaga yang diberikan oleh kumparan
ossilator RF. Bila sampel menyerap tenaga, maka putaran inti akan menghasilkan
sinyal frekuensi radio pada bidang kumparan detector, dan alat memberikan
respon ke pencatatan sebagai sinyal resonansi atau puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pencatat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pencatat
berfungsi untuk menangkap sinyal dari detector yang mengubahnya sebagai sinyal
resonansi atau puncak. Sebelum sinyal sampai ke pencatat biasanya dilewatkan
terlebih dahulu ke audio amflier untuk menggandakan sinyal, sehingga menjadi
lebih Nampak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegunaan
Spektoskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrometri Resonansi Magnetik Inti
pada umumnya digunakan untuk :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menentukan
jumlah proton yang dimiliki lingkungan kimia yang sama pada suatu senyawa
organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mengetahui
informasi mengenai struktur suatu senyawa organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektoskopi NMR dapat digunakan
sebagai alat sidik jari.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrofotometri
Resonansi Magnetik Inti Proton berguna untuk penentuan struktur molekul
organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh
Interpretasi Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">CARA
MEMPEROLEH SPEKTRUM NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada 2 teknik untuk
memperoleh spektrum NMR yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Continous
Wave (CW).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pulse
Fourier Transform (PFT atau FT).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
teknik “Continous Wave” Medan magnet eksternal, Bo divariasi, sedang frekuensi
radionya tetap (field-sweep). Atau, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Frekuensi
radio divariasi, sedang medan magnet eksternalnya tetap (frequency-sweep).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebanyakan instrument CW yang modern
menggunakan model “frequency-sweep”. Dalam teknik ini, frekuensi radio tidak
divariasi dalam range yang dapat mencakup semua inti yang secara magnetik aktif
dan “possible”, tetapi hanya divariasi dalam range yang sempit sekitar
frekuensi resonansi dari inti yang bersangkutan.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misalnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
memperoleh spektra 1H-NMR menggunakan suatu magnet dengan Bo = 21.150 gauss,
frekuensi divariasi sekitar 90 MHz misalnya dari 90.000.000-90.001.000 Hz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
memperoleh spektra 13C-NMR dengan kekuatan medan magnet yang sama, frekuensi
divariasi pada range yang sempit sekitar 22,6 MHz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Suatu instrumen dengan magnet
berkekuatan 21,50 gauss, dimana 1H beresonansi pada 90 MHz, disebut suatu
spectrometer 90 MHz. Frekuensi resonansi dari 1H disebut sebagai frekuensi
operasional dari instrumen. Dalam teknik CW ini, masing-masing tipe hidrogen
(atau karbon) dieksitasikan sendiri- sendiri, sehingga dibutuhkan waktu yang
agak lama (beberapa menit) untuk memperoleh spectrum NMR secara keseluruhan
(lengkap). Pada teknik FT semua frekuensi diberikan sekaligus sehingga semua
inti mengalami resonansi, intensitas sinyal hampir sama dengan noise, lalu
dirunning berulang-ulang sehingga diperoleh intensitas sinyal yang lebih besar
dari pada noise, sehingga peak pada FT akan terlihat lebih jelas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemudian sinyal-sinyal tersebut
dipilah-pilah sehingga inti tertentu yang beresonansi pada H tertentu muncul
sebagai peak yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Langkah-langkah menginterpretasikan
spekta NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">jumlah sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang
adanya beberapa macam perbedaan dari proton-proton yang terdapat dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kedudukan sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan sesuatu
tentang lingkungan elektronik dari setiap macam proton.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intensitas sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang
berapa banyak proton dari setiap macxam proton yang ada.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemecahan ( splinting ) dari sebuah
sinyal menjadi beberapa puncak,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang lingkungan dari sebuah proton
dengan lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada
spectrum H-NMR dalam elusidasi struktur perlu diperhatikan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Luas di bawah puncak yang biasanya
dinyatakan dengan intergrasi untuk melihat perbandingan jumlah proton pada
masing-masing puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terjadinya spin-spin splinting yang
mengikuti segitiga pascal. Interaksi antara ikatan electron yang mempunyai
kencerungan berpasangan spin dari electron dengan electron lainnya pada proton
yang berdekatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Geseran kimia (chemical shift),
yaitu kedudukan proton dalam spektum tersebut.</span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelebihan
Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelebihan
dari alat ini adalah dapat mengidentifikasi adanya senyawa organic dalam
sampel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">REFERENSI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Khopkar, S.M., <i>Konsep Dasar Kimia Analitik</i>,
275-286,389-400, UI Press, Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sastrohamidjojo, Hardjono, 2001, <i>spektroskopi</i>,
415, Liberty, Yogyakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Silverstein, R.M., 1991, <i>Penyelidikan Spektrometrik
Senyawa Organik</i>, Edisi 4, diterjemahkan olehHartomo, 249-278, Erlangga,
Jakarta.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Trianto, Agus. 2001. <i>Jurnal
Study Penggunaan Spektrum NMR Pada Elusidasi Struktur Lantanculin S.</i>Universitas
Diponegoro. Tidak diterbitkan.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-35466334290492982362012-10-01T07:47:00.002-07:002012-10-01T07:48:19.947-07:00NMR<br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 150%;">RESUME<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
RESONANSI MAGNETIK INTI (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Diajukan
untuk memenuhi tugas individu mata kuliah Kimia Instrumen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disusun
Oleh:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Iim
Imas (1209208045)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PENDIDIKAN
KIMIA B/ VI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">FAKULTAS
TARBIYAH DAN KEGURUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UNIVERSITAS
ISLAM NEGERI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SUNAN
GUNUNG DJATI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">BANDUNG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2012<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
RESONANSI MAGNETIK INTI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektroskopi
Resonansi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">NMR
(Nuclear Magnetic Resonance), spektroskopi NMR berhubungan dengan sifat magnet
dari inti atom. Teknik spektroskopi adalah salah satu teknik analisis
kimia-fisika yang mengamati tentang interaksi atom atau molekul dengan radiasi
elektromagnetik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
tahun 1945 dua group dari serjana fisika furcell, Torry,dan Pound (Haward
University) dan block, Hansen, dan Packard (Stanford University) menemukan
fenomena inti yang mempunyai proton dan electron memiliki medan magnet. Dalam
magnet yang kuat inti-inti dianggap berorientasi spesifik dengan tenaga
potensial yang sesuai. Setiap proton mempunyai tenaga putaran yang sama dan
putaran-putarannya mempunyai arah orientasi seimbang. Oleh karena medan magnet,
putaran-putaran proton diarahkan baik paralel atau anti paralel terhadap medan
magnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Block
dan Purcell menemukan cara-cara untuk mengetahui sejumlah kecil dari tenaga
yang diserap atau dipancarkan, seperti kalau inti-inti loncat dari tenaga satu
ke tenaga lainnya. Dari penemuan tersebut maka sejak tahun 1950 resonansi
magnetik inti (NMR) mulai digunakan untuk menentukan rumus struktur senyawa.
Ada dua macam NMR yang dikenal. Diantaranya NMR proton dan NMR karbon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">SPEKTROSKOPI
PROTON H-NMR</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektroskopi
NMR proton merupakan sarana untuk menentukan stuktur senyawa organik dengan
mengukur momen magnet atom hydrogen. Pada kebanyakan senyawa, atom hydrogen
terikat pada gugus yang berlainan ( seperti –CH<sub>2</sub>-, -CH<sub>3-, </sub>-CHO,
-NH<sub>2</sub>, -CHOH- ) dan spektum NMR proton merupakan rekaman sejumlah
atom hydrogen yang berada dalam lingkungan yang berlainan. Spektum ini tidak
dapat memberikan keterangan langsung mengenai sifat kerangka karbon molekul
sehingga diperlukan spektum NMR C-13.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Larutan
cuplikan dalam pelarut lembam ditempatkan diantara kutub magnet yang kuat, dan
proton mengalami pergeseran kimia yang berlainan sesuai dengan lingkungan
molekulnya di dalam molekul. Ini diukur dalam radar NMR, biasanya
tetrametilsilan (TMS) digunakan sebagai acuan, yaitu senyawa lembam yang
ditambahkan ke dalam larutan cuplikan tanpa ada kemungkinan terjadinya reaksi
kimia dengan senyawa yang akan diukur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adapun
pelarut yang biasanya digunakan yaitu karbontetraklorida, deuterokloroform,
deuteriumoksida, deuteroaseton, atau dimetilsulfoksida terdeuterasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektoskopi
NMR dapat digunakan sebagai alat sidik jari.dan juga memberikan keterangan
tentang jumlah setiap tipe hydrogen. Ia juga memberikan keterangan tentang
sifat lingkungan dari setiap atom hydrogen tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kegunaan
yang besar dari resonansi magnet inti adalah karena tidak setiap proton dalam
molekul beresonansi pada frekwensi yang identik sama. Ini disebabkan oleh
kenyataan bahwa berbagai proton dalam molekul dikelilingi elektron dan
menunjukan sedikit perbedaan lingkungan elektronik dari 1 proton ke proton
lainnya. Proton-proton dilindungi oleh elektron-elektron disekelilingnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spectrum
NMR tidak hanya dapat membedakan beberapa banyak proton yang berbeda dalam
molekul, teteapi ia juga mengungkapkan berapa banyak setiap tipe proton
berbeda yang terkandung dalam molekulnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada spektormetri NMR integrasi
sangat penting. Harga integrasi menunjukkan daerah atau luas puncak dari
tiap-tiap proton. Sedangkan luas daerah atau luas puncak tersebut sesuai dengan
jumlah proton. Dengan demikian perbandingan tiap integrasi proton sama dengan
perbandingan jumlah proton dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Daerah geseran kimia proton bernilai antara 0 – 200
ppm, berikut daerah geseran kimia yang penting untuk beberapa jenis karbon :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPEKTROSKOPI
KARBON-13<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sinyal
dari atom C<sup>13</sup> dalam alat NMR dapat dideteksi karena adanya
sejumlah kecil atom karbon C-13 bersama-sama C-12. momen magnet yang dihasilkan
oleh <sup>13</sup>C lebih kecil, bila dibandingkan dengan momen magnet
proton, berarti sinyalnya jauh lebih lemah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pelarut
yang biasanya digunakan serupa dengan NMR proton, tetapi jangka resonansi C jauh
lebih besar. Sehingga spektum NMR-<sup>13</sup>C jauh lebih teresolusi, umumnya
setiap karbon dalam molekul dapat ditetapkan sinyalnya. Sama halnya seperti
pada NMR proton, atom karbon penyulihannya berlainan akan menunjukkan geseran
dalam jangka yang khas. Spectrum NMR<sup>13</sup>C pada hakikatnya merupakan
pelengkap NMR proton.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada
spectrum C-NMR dalam elusidasi struktur perlu diperhatikan :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Luas di bawah puncak yang biasanya
dinyatakan dengan intergrasi untuk melihat perbandingan jumlah carbon yang
ekuivalen secara magnetic pada masing-masing puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terjadinya spin-spin splinting yang
mengikuti segitiga pascal. Interaksi antara ikatan electron yang mempunyai
kencerungan berpasangan spin dari electron dengan electron lainnya pada proton
yang diikat. Spin-spin splinting ini sering dihilangkan dengan cara di
dekloping guna menghindari puncak-puncak yang tumpang tindih.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Geseran kimia (chemical shift),
yaitu kedudukan karbon dalam spektum tersebut. Ini juga menggambarkan letak dan
kedudukan karbon dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cirri-ciri
Spektroskopi <sub>14</sub>C NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektroskopi <sub>13</sub>C NMR
menghasilkan informasi struktur mengenai karbon-karbon dalam sebuah molekul
organik. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam spektroskopi 1H NMR kita bekerja
dengan isotop hidrogen alamiah dengan kelimpahan 99,985 %, atom hidrogen
alamiah adalah 1H,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Atom karbon dalam alam 98,9 % adalah
12C, suatu isotop yang intinya tak mempunyai spin (I = 0). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karbon -13 hanya merupakan 1,1 % atom
karbon yang terdapat di alam ( I = ½). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Transisi dari paralel ke antiparalel
dari sebuah inti 13C adalah transisi energi rendah. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektra 13C NMR hanya dapat diperoleh
dengan spektrometer yang sangat sensitif. Kelimpahan 13C yang rendah akan
mengurangi kerumitan spektra 13C dibandingkan spektra 1H NMR. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">interaksi antar karbon yang berdekatan
diabaikan, tetapi karbon dapat berinteraksi dengan proton yang diikat oleh
masing-masing karbon yang menyebabkan terjadinya spliting yang menunjukkan
puncak (n + 1), n = jumlah H, oleh karena itu sinyal masing-masing karbon dari
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metil (CH3-C) akan muncul 4 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metilen (-CH2-) akan muncul 3 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
metil (-CH-) akan muncul 2 puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">karbon
kuarterner (-C-) akan muncul 1</span><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">puncak,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk membedakan jenis karbon, metil,
metilen, metin, dan karbon kuarterner digunakan analisis spektrum DEPT 13C NMR
atau NMR dua dimensi (HMQC = korelasi antara proton-karbon satu ikatan). Ada
tiga jenis spektrum DEPT 13C NMR, yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DEPT
90o= hanya muncul sinyal C-H.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DEPT
135o= muncul sinyal CH dan CH3masing-masing berharga positif, sedangkan sinyal
CH2akan muncul sebagai sinyal berharga negatif.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip
Kerja Spektroskopi Resonansi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip
yang mendasari kerja dari NMR yaitu </span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;">penyerapan
energi oleh partikel yang sedang berputar di dalam medan magnet yang kuat </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">sehingga
nantinya medan magnet yang sesuai dengan molekul akan dikonversi menjadi
spektra NMR sehingga </span><i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;">struktur
senyawa / rumus bangun molekul senyawa organik</span></i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">dapat teridentifikasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrometri
NMR pada dasarnya merupakan spektrometri absorbsi, sebagaimana spektrometri
infra merah maupun ultraviolet. Pada kondisi yang sesuai, suatu sampel dapat
mengabsorpsi radiasi elektromagnetik daerah frekuensi radio, pada frekuensi yang
tergantung dari sifat-sifat sampel. Suatu plot dari frekuensi puncak-puncak
absorbsi versus intensitas puncak memberikan suatu spektrum NMR. Dalam NMR yang
diukur adalah perbedaan frekuensi antara suatu jenis proton dengan frekuensi
resonansi proton senyawa pembanding (reference). Senyawa ini disebut sebagai
standar internal dan ditambahkan ke dalam sample sebelum me”running” NMR.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pergeseran
kimia</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(CHEMICAL SHIFT)</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>adalah pengukuran medan dalam keadaan bebas.
Semua proton-proton dalam satu molekul yang ada dalam lingkungan kimia yang
serupa kadang-kadang menunjukkan pergeseran kimia yang sama. Setiap senyawa
memberikan penaikan menjadi puncak absorbsi tunggal dalam spektrum NMR.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa
yang digunakan sebagai senyawa reference tersebut adalah : Tetra Metil Silan
(TMS).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Gambar Tetra Metil Silan (TMS)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1051" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:168.75pt;height:89.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.png"
o:title="jhhjhbnjn"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="119" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1051" width="225" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
memberikan sinyal yang tajam (singlet) dengan intensitas tinggi, karena
mempunyai 12 proton yang ekuivalen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
mengabsorbsi pada ‘higher field’ dibanding hampir semua proton organik (Si
bersifat elektropositif, sehingga proton-proton dalam TMS sangat terlindungi
(shielded).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bersifat
inert.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mempunyai
titik didih yang rendah (27<sup>o</sup>C), sehingga mudah dihilangkan jika
digunakan untuk dua kali pengujian senyawa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Larut
dalam kebanyakan pelarut organic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TMS
tidak larut dalam air maupun D2O. Dalam hal ini TMS dapat diperlakukan sebagai
‘external standard’. Atau dapat juga dipakai garam natrium dari asam 3-
(trimetilsilil)-propanasulfonat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(CH3)3SiCH2CH2CH2SO3-Na+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo12; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berapa
Hz bergesernya suatu proton dari TMS akan tergantung pada kekuatan medan magnet
eksternal yang digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo12; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Semakin
besar medan magnet yang digunakan, semakin besar perbedaan frekuensi dari TMS.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1050" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:311.25pt;height:141.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.png"
o:title="hgjhgmh"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="189" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1050" width="415" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1049" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:303pt;height:164.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.png"
o:title="nbj,nhkjnhvhg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="219" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1049" width="404" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hal
ini akan menyulitkan kita apabila kita ingin membandingkan data (spectrum) yang
diperoleh dengan spektrometer NMR yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Maka
digunakan parameter baru yang tidak tergantung pada kekuatan medan magnet
eksternal yang digunakan, yaitu : chemical shift, geseran kimia (ᵟ)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1048" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:267pt;height:50.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.png"
o:title="ojkjjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="67" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1048" width="356" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari
contoh spectra di atas, maka:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1047" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;height:132.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png"
o:title="mn ,mn m"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="177" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1047" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Chemical
shift juga bisa dinyatakan dalam skala ˠ (tau), dimana ˠ = 10 – ᵟ<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
spektrum NMR, luas daerah di bawah puncak (peak) akan proposional dengan jumlah
hidrogen yang menimbulkan/menghasilkan peak tersebut. Integrasi peak biasanya
ditunjukkan sebagi suatu garis integrasi (integration line). Tinggi integrasi
di atas suatu peak secara langsung proporsional dengan luas daerah di bawah
peak tersebut. Tinggi garis integrasi tidak menunjukkan jumlah absolut dari
proton, tetapi memberikan jumlah relatif dari masing-masing tipe hidrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1046" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:332.25pt;height:171pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png"
o:title="gfgbhgbn"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="228" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1046" width="443" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1045" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:339pt;height:1in;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.png"
o:title="1"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="96" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1045" width="452" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karena
jumlah total proton dalam benzil asetat ada 10, maka jumlah proton yang menghasilkan
peak-peak pada ᵟ 7,3 ; ᵟ 5,1 dan ᵟ 2,0 berturut-turut adalah 5/10 x 10 = 5;
2/10 x 10 = 2 dan 3/10 x 10 = 3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumen
NMR yang modern tidak hanya memperlihatkan garis integrasi pada spectrum yang
dihasilkan , tetapi juga memberikan bilangan integrasi (integration number),
yang memberikan jumlah relatif hidrogen di bawah suatu peak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_9" o:spid="_x0000_i1044"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:353.25pt;height:190.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.png"
o:title="2"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="254" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 13.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel:
Bilangan kuantum spin dan kelimpahannya di alam dari beberapa inti atom<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1043" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:468pt;height:169.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.png"
o:title="ipong"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="226" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1043" width="624" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misal:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">12C → jumlah proton = 6
(genap)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">No massa = 12 (genap)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sehingga tidak muncul
pada spektra NMR (NMR negatif) Jika I = 0 →tidak aktif NMR proton Kelimpahan di
alam:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1H = 99,985 → sebagian
besar proton di alam adalah radioaktif →aktif NMR <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hampir semua proton
aktif <span> </span>NMR dan kelimpahannya di alam
tinggi, sehingga kemungkinan proton aktif <span> </span>NMR berdekatan dengan proton aktif NMR dalam
molekul-molekul di alam adalah besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">13C = 1,1 →sangat
sedikit →aktif NMR <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Atom
C yang aktif <span> </span>NMR kelimpahannya di alam
hanya sedikit, sehingga kemungkinan C aktif NMR berdekatan dengan C aktif NMR
dalam molekul-molekul adalah kecil. Dalam keadaan normal (inti tidak
dikenai/diletakkan pada medan magnet eksternal), semua orientasi dari suatu
inti berenergi sama (degenerasi). Bila inti dikenai medan magnet, maka
orientasi/tingkat spin tidak lagi berenergi sama. Hal ini disebabkan karena
inti mempunyai momen magnetik (.) yang ditimbulkan oleh berpusingnya muatan.
Jumlah orientasi yang mungkin bagi suatu inti bila padanya dikenakan medan
magnet homogen eksternal ditentukan oleh bilangan kuantum spin (I) dari inti
tersebut, sesuai dengan persamaan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1042" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:181.5pt;height:24pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.png"
o:title="12"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="32" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1042" width="242" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jadi
untuk inti 1H dan <sup>13</sup>C, dengan I = ½, masing-masing akan mempunyai
dua macam orientasi (2 x ½ + 1 = 2), yaitu + ½ (searah dengan medan magnet) dan
– ½ (berlawanan arah/melawan medan magnet). Tingkatan spin + ½ berenergi lebih
rendah karena searah dengan medan magnet karena searah dengan medan magnet
eksternal, sedang tingkatan spin – ½ berenergi lebih tinggi karena melawan
medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1041" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:447pt;
height:161.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.png"
o:title="redttythj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="215" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="596" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi spin inti:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi random (dalam
ketiadaan medan magnet eksternal).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Orientasi spesifik
(dalam medan magnet eksternal, Ho). Kebanyakan spin searah dengan medan magnet
eksternal (paralel), dan sebagian antiparalel (melawan Ho). Tingkat spin
paralel mempunyai energi yang lebih rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perbedaan
energi antara dua tingkatan spin tersebut dinyatakan dengan persamaan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1040"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:121.5pt;height:23.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image027.png"
o:title="dghfg"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="31" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="162" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">h = tetapan Planck<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ˠ= “magnetogeryc ratio”
(tetapan bagi tiap-tiap inti)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bo
= kekuatan medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari persamaan tersebut terlihat bahwa
perbedaan energi antara dua tingkatan spin tersebut tergantung pada kekuatan
medan magnet eksternal (Bo). Makin kuat medan magnet eksternal yang digunakan,
makin besar ∆E antara tingkatan-tingkatan spin tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1039" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;
height:125.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.png"
o:title="jhgkjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="167" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain itu besarnya pemisahan tingkat
energi juga tergantung pada macamnya inti yang terlibat dalam proses tersebut.
Masing-masing inti mempunyai ratio momen magnetic/momen sudut yang berbeda,
karena mempunyai muatan dan massa yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">FENOMENA
NMR : Absorbsi energy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Fenomena NMR terjadi apabila inti yang
searah dengan medan magnet eksternal dibuat mengabsorbsi energi (radiasi
elektromagnetik), sehingga berubah orientasi spinnya, yaitu menjadi berlawanan
dengan medan magnet eksternal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1038" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:359.25pt;
height:123.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.png"
o:title="jhgkjk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="165" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="479" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Besarnya
energi yang diabsorbsi harus persis sama dengan FE antara dua tingkatan spin
yang terlibat dalam proses tersebut, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:94.5pt;height:24.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image032.png"
o:title="kjllj.khljk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="33" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1037" width="126" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan
menghubungkan persamaan (1) dan (2), maka besarnya frekuensi (H) agar suatu
inti beresonansi dapat ditentukan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1036" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:90.75pt;height:35.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image034.png"
o:title="kllj.kjhk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="47" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image035.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1036" width="121" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gambar
fenomena NMR :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1035" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:353.25pt;height:106.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.png"
o:title="GFGBVMJHG"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="142" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1035" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel
: Kekuatan medan magnet eksternal, Bo,<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">beserta harga frekuensi agar inti
tertentu dapat beresonansi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 45.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:4in;height:158.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image038.png"
o:title="ikljioiok"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="211" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1034" width="384" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misal:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1H
dan 2H walaupun sama-sama diberi Bo = 10.000 Gauss, frekuensi resonansinya
berbeda karena C nya berbeda. Karakteristik ini bisa dipakai untuk mendeteksi
adanya proton yang terikat pada heteroatom. Caranya : Sampel proton yang
terikat pada atom O (O-H) jika dirunning dengan alat yang telah diset H = 42,6
MHz (frekuensi resonansi untuk 1H) → maka akan muncul peak 1H (proton). Jika
sampel tersebut digojog dengan D<sub>2</sub>O maka OH akan digantikan dengan OD
sehingga kalau alatnya diset tetap pada H = 42,6 MHz, maka tidak akan muncul
peak proton, karena 1H telah digantikan dengan D. Karena inti bermuatan,
presesi akan menimbulkan medan listrik yang berosilasi (berputar) pada
frekuensi yang sama dengan frekuensi presesi. Kalau gelombang radio yang
berfrekuensi sama dengan frekuensi osilasi dari medan listrik proton yang
berpresesi diberikan, maka sejumlah energi tersebut akan diabsorbsi, yang menyebabkan
terjadinya perubahan spin dari searah menjadi berlawanan arah dengan medan magnet
eksternal. Peristiwa ini disebut resonansi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dan
besarnya ∆E yang diabsorbsi bisa diukur dan diubah menjadi spectra :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1033" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:420pt;height:98.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image040.png"
o:title="jhfdiojugiofhbgj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="131" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1033" width="560" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PRINSIP
NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Prinsip dari NMR didasarkan pada
absorpsi radiasi elektromagnetik pada daerah frekuensi radio (4600) MHz atau
panjang gelombang 75-0,5 m oleh partikel (inti atom) yang berputar di dalam
medan magnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Proton yang bergasing yang diikuti oleh pergasingan kedua
elektronnya akan memberikan masing-masing vektor momen sudut (I) dan vektor
momen magnet</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Perubahan vektor momen sudut dan momen magnet akan
dititikberatkan pada inti atom saja,<span>
</span>karena pada inti atom ada sisa momen spin (sisa pergasingan pada atom yang
bersifat magnetik).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1032"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="scan0001" style='width:315.75pt;height:101.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square' filled="t" fillcolor="#1f497d">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image042.jpg"
o:title="scan0001"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="scan0001" height="135" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image043.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="421" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Bilangan kuantum spin (I) memberikan harga yang
bervariasi: 0,1/2/11/2…9/2, ini tergantung dari macam inti atomnya.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Bilangan spin (I) menunjukkan jumlah orientasi suatu
inti jika menerima<span> </span>medan magnet seragam
dari luar, yang sesuai dengan rumus 2I+I.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Setiap orientasi menunjukkan tingkat energi dari
inti tersebut, orientasi tersebut antara lain orientasi paralel dan orientasi
anti paralel, orientasi momen magnet paralel sedikit lebih stabil dibandingkan
keadaan anti paralel.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gambar fenomena
NMR :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_7" o:spid="_x0000_i1031"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:353.25pt;height:106.5pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.png"
o:title="GFGBVMJHG"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="142" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image044.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="471" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Setiap inti dikelilingi oleh awan elektron yang
selalu bergerak. Pada pengaruh medan magnet, elektron-elektron ini dipaksa
bersirkulasi sedemikian rupa dalam usaha melawan medan magnet tersebut.
Akibatnya, inti seakan-akan mendapat efek perisai (shielding effect) terhadap
medan magnet luar (H<sub>o</sub>).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span> </span>Karena setiap
proton di dalam molekul zat organik beranekaragam, maka setiap proton di dalam
molekul zat organik<span> </span>memberikan tetapan
perisai (σ) yang berbeda.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_i1030"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:321pt;height:131.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image045.png"
o:title="j,bjkhkj"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="175" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image046.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="428" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek polar dan efek induksi sangat berpengaruh
terhadap tetapan perisai (σ) yang menunjukan kerapatan elektron terhadap
proton. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Contoh : pada molekul CH<sub>3</sub>OH (metanol ),
proton pada OH akan lebih mudah dibalik (beresonansi), karena menyerap Ho lebih
rendah jadi efek induksinya lemah, karena tidak terperisai (deshielding) .
Sebaliknya proton pada CH<sub>3 </sub>protonnya mengalami induksi yang kuat,
karena terperisai (shielding).<b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Karena setiap proton memberikan tetapan perisai (σ)
maka setiap proton juga memberikan efek perisai yang dinyatakan sebagai :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 164.75pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek perisai = σ . Ho<span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Efek perisai sudah jelas akan mengurangi medan
magnet yang digunakan ( Ho) dan besarnya yang dirasakan ini dinyatakan sebagai
(HN) yang dinyatakan sebagi :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">HN = Ho – σHo = Ho (1- σ ).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">SPIN-SPIN SPLITTING / SPIN-SPIN COUPLING<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Secara empiris, spin-spin splitting
dapat dijelaskan dengan aturan (n + 1) : Tiap jenis proton “merasakan” sejumlah
proton ekivalen (n) yang terikat pada atom karbon yang bertetangga dengan atom
karbon yang mengikat proton tersebut sehingga resonansi dari proton pecah/split
menjadi n+1 sinyal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_11" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:359.25pt;
height:123pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image047.png"
o:title="4"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="164" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image048.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="479" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila proton A mempunyai 2 proton
tetangga yang ekivalen, maka sinyal resonansinya akan di-split menjadi triplet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_12" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:184.5pt;
height:111.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image049.png"
o:title="5"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="149" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image050.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="246" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila proton A mempunyai 2 proton
tetangga yang ekivalen, maka sinyal resonansinya akan di-split menjadi kwartet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_13" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:289.5pt;
height:169.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image051.png"
o:title="6"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="226" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image052.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="386" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Segitiga pascal : Rasio intensitas sinyal hasil
splitting sesuai dengan segitiga pascal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_14"
o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:264.75pt;height:188.25pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image053.png"
o:title="7"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="251" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image054.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_14" width="353" /><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumentasi
Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:357pt;height:177pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image055.png"
o:title="jijikkk"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="236" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image056.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="476" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Komponen-komponennya :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Magnet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Generator
“sweep”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Transmiter
RF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
transmitter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
penerima<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
“sweep”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Deterktor
& penerima RF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rekorder<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sampel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Instrumentasi
NMR diantaranya :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempat
Sampel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempat
sampel berupa tabung gelas yang terbentuk silindris, diletakan diantara dua
kutub magnet. Sampel dilarutkan dalam pelarut yang tak mengandung proton seperti
CCl<sub>4 </sub>, CDCl<sub>3 </sub>, D<sub>2</sub>O, atau acetonitril dan
sejumlah kecil TMS ditambahkan sebagai standar internal, kemudian dimasukan ke
dalam tempat sampel. Sampel kemudian diputar sekitar sumbunya untuk
mengusahakan agar semua bagian dari larutan terkena medan magnet yang sama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Celah
Magnet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Magnet
terdiri dari dua bagian, magnet pokok mempunyai kekuatan sekitar 14.100 Gauss,
dan ia ditutup oleh potongan-potongan kecil kutub electromagnet. Pada celah
magnet terdapat kumparan yang dihubungkan dengan ossilator frekuensi radio (Rf)
60 MHz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ossilator
frekuensi Radio<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ossilator
frekuensi radio akan memberikan tenaga elektromagnetik sebesar 60 MHz melalui
kumparan yang dihubungkan pada celah sampel. Kumparan selanjutnya memberikan
tenaga elektromagnetik yang digunakan untuk mengubah orientasi perputaran
proton. Kebanyakan spektropotometer NMR menggunakan sinyal frekuensi RF tetap
dan mengubah-ubah kekuatan medan magnet untuk membawa setiap proton mengalami
resonansi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Detector
Radio Frekuensi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kumparan
detector berada tegak lurus dengan kumparan ossilaor RF. Bila ada tenaga yang
diserap, kumparan detector tidak menangkap tenaga yang diberikan oleh kumparan
ossilator RF. Bila sampel menyerap tenaga, maka putaran inti akan menghasilkan
sinyal frekuensi radio pada bidang kumparan detector, dan alat memberikan
respon ke pencatatan sebagai sinyal resonansi atau puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pencatat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pencatat
berfungsi untuk menangkap sinyal dari detector yang mengubahnya sebagai sinyal
resonansi atau puncak. Sebelum sinyal sampai ke pencatat biasanya dilewatkan
terlebih dahulu ke audio amflier untuk menggandakan sinyal, sehingga menjadi
lebih Nampak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegunaan
Spektoskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrometri Resonansi Magnetik Inti
pada umumnya digunakan untuk :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menentukan
jumlah proton yang dimiliki lingkungan kimia yang sama pada suatu senyawa
organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mengetahui
informasi mengenai struktur suatu senyawa organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spektoskopi NMR dapat digunakan
sebagai alat sidik jari.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spektrofotometri
Resonansi Magnetik Inti Proton berguna untuk penentuan struktur molekul
organik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh
Interpretasi Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">CARA
MEMPEROLEH SPEKTRUM NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada 2 teknik untuk
memperoleh spektrum NMR yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Continous
Wave (CW).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pulse
Fourier Transform (PFT atau FT).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
teknik “Continous Wave” Medan magnet eksternal, Bo divariasi, sedang frekuensi
radionya tetap (field-sweep). Atau, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Frekuensi
radio divariasi, sedang medan magnet eksternalnya tetap (frequency-sweep).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebanyakan instrument CW yang modern
menggunakan model “frequency-sweep”. Dalam teknik ini, frekuensi radio tidak
divariasi dalam range yang dapat mencakup semua inti yang secara magnetik aktif
dan “possible”, tetapi hanya divariasi dalam range yang sempit sekitar
frekuensi resonansi dari inti yang bersangkutan.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misalnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
memperoleh spektra 1H-NMR menggunakan suatu magnet dengan Bo = 21.150 gauss,
frekuensi divariasi sekitar 90 MHz misalnya dari 90.000.000-90.001.000 Hz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
memperoleh spektra 13C-NMR dengan kekuatan medan magnet yang sama, frekuensi
divariasi pada range yang sempit sekitar 22,6 MHz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Suatu instrumen dengan magnet
berkekuatan 21,50 gauss, dimana 1H beresonansi pada 90 MHz, disebut suatu
spectrometer 90 MHz. Frekuensi resonansi dari 1H disebut sebagai frekuensi
operasional dari instrumen. Dalam teknik CW ini, masing-masing tipe hidrogen
(atau karbon) dieksitasikan sendiri- sendiri, sehingga dibutuhkan waktu yang
agak lama (beberapa menit) untuk memperoleh spectrum NMR secara keseluruhan
(lengkap). Pada teknik FT semua frekuensi diberikan sekaligus sehingga semua
inti mengalami resonansi, intensitas sinyal hampir sama dengan noise, lalu
dirunning berulang-ulang sehingga diperoleh intensitas sinyal yang lebih besar
dari pada noise, sehingga peak pada FT akan terlihat lebih jelas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemudian sinyal-sinyal tersebut
dipilah-pilah sehingga inti tertentu yang beresonansi pada H tertentu muncul
sebagai peak yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Langkah-langkah menginterpretasikan
spekta NMR :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">jumlah sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang
adanya beberapa macam perbedaan dari proton-proton yang terdapat dalam molekul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kedudukan sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan sesuatu
tentang lingkungan elektronik dari setiap macam proton.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intensitas sinyal,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang
berapa banyak proton dari setiap macxam proton yang ada.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemecahan ( splinting ) dari sebuah
sinyal menjadi beberapa puncak,</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang menerangkan tentang lingkungan dari sebuah proton
dengan lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada
spectrum H-NMR dalam elusidasi struktur perlu diperhatikan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Luas di bawah puncak yang biasanya
dinyatakan dengan intergrasi untuk melihat perbandingan jumlah proton pada
masing-masing puncak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Terjadinya spin-spin splinting yang
mengikuti segitiga pascal. Interaksi antara ikatan electron yang mempunyai
kencerungan berpasangan spin dari electron dengan electron lainnya pada proton
yang berdekatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Geseran kimia (chemical shift),
yaitu kedudukan proton dalam spektum tersebut.</span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelebihan
Spektroskopi Magnetik Inti (NMR)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelebihan
dari alat ini adalah dapat mengidentifikasi adanya senyawa organic dalam
sampel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">REFERENSI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Khopkar, S.M., <i>Konsep Dasar Kimia Analitik</i>,
275-286,389-400, UI Press, Jakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sastrohamidjojo, Hardjono, 2001, <i>spektroskopi</i>,
415, Liberty, Yogyakarta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Silverstein, R.M., 1991, <i>Penyelidikan Spektrometrik
Senyawa Organik</i>, Edisi 4, diterjemahkan olehHartomo, 249-278, Erlangga,
Jakarta.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Trianto, Agus. 2001. <i>Jurnal
Study Penggunaan Spektrum NMR Pada Elusidasi Struktur Lantanculin S.</i>Universitas
Diponegoro. Tidak diterbitkan.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><br />
<br />
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-23339379092053555672012-10-01T07:42:00.003-07:002012-10-01T07:47:13.922-07:00makalah karbon<br />
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB I</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PENDAHULUAN</span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
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</ol>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon merupakan salah satu unsur dari
unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan IV A dan merupakan salah unsur
terpenting dalam kehidupan sehari-hari karena terdapat lebih banyak senyawaan
yang terbentuk dari unsur karbon.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Keistimewaan karbon yang unik adalah
kecenderungannya secara alamiah untuk mengikat dirinya sendiri dalam
rantai-rantai atau cincin-cincin,tidak hanya dengan ikatan tunggal, C - C ,
tetapi juga mengandung ikatan ganda C = C, serta rangkap tiga,C≡C.Akibatnya,
jenis senyawa karbon luar biasa banyaknya. kini diperkirakan terdapat sekitar
dua juta jenis senyawa karbon,dan jumlah itu makin meningkat dengan laju
kira-kira lima persen per tahun.Alasan bagi kestabilan termal rantai-rantai
karbon adalah kekuatan hakiki yang tinggi dari ikatan tunggal C - C.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Konfigurasi elektron karbon dalam keadaan
dasar adalah (1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>2) </sup>mudah terhibridasi
menghasilkan perangkat orbital sp<sup>3</sup>, atau sp<sup>2</sup>+p, atau sp+p<sup>2</sup>.
Lebih dari sembilan puluh persen senyawa karbon merupakan senyawa sintetik,
sedangkan sisanya diperoleh dari mahluk hidup (tumbuh-tumbuhan,hewan,jamur,dan
mikroorganisme) serta fosil mereka (batubara dan minyak bumi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">2. Permasalahan</span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Permasalahan yang akan kami bahas dalam
makalah ini adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">a. Karbon dan Sifat-sifat <span> </span>karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">b. Sejarah karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">c. Alotropi karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">d. Senyawa Anorganik karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">e. Siklus karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB II</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon dan sifat-sifat karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.1. Karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Karbon merupakan
unsur kimia yang mempunyai simbol C d<span lang="IN">engan </span><span> </span>nomor atom 6<span lang="IN"> dan termasuk</span> unsur golongan <span lang="IN">IV A</span><span> </span>pada tabel periodi<span lang="IN">k. K</span>arbon merupakan unsur non-logam dan
bervalensi 4 (tetravalen), yang berarti bahwa terdapat empat elektron yang
dapat digunakan untuk membentuk ikatan<span>
</span>kovalen. Terdapat tiga macam isotop karbon yang ditemukan secara alami,
yakni 12C<span> </span>dan 13C<span> </span>yang stabil, dan 14C yang bersifat radioaktif
dengan waktu paruh peluruhannya sekitar 5730 tahun<span lang="IN">. </span>Karbon merupakan salah satu dari di antara
beberapa unsur yang diketahui keberadaannya sejak zaman kuno<span lang="IN">. </span>Istilah "karbon" berasal dari
bahasa Latin carbo, yang berarti batu bara.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Karbon adalah
unsur paling berlimpah ke-15 di kerak Bumi dan ke-4 di alam semesta. Karbon
terdapat pada semua jenis makhluk hidup, dan pada manusia, karbon merupakan
unsur paling berlimpah kedua (sekitar 18,5%) setelah oksigen.[6] Keberlimpahan
karbon ini, bersamaan dengan keanekaragaman senyawa organik dan kemampuannya
membentuk polimer membuat karbon sebagai unsur dasar kimiawi kehidupan. Unsur
ini adalah unsur yang paling stabil diantara unsur-unsur yang lain, sehingga
dijadikan patokan dalam mengukur satuan massa atom.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Sumber karbon
anorganik terbesar terdapat pada batu kapur, dolomit, dan karbon dioksida,
sedangkan sumber organik terdapat pada batu bara, tanah gambut, minyak bumi,
dan klatrat metana. Karbon dapat membentuk lebih banyak senyawa daripada
unsur-unsur lainnya, dengan hampir 10 juta senyawa organik murni yang telah
dideskripsikan sampai sekarang<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.2 Sifat-Sifat
karbon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">1. <b>sifat
fisika</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon mempunyai sifat fisik yang khas
yaitu mempunyai dua bentuk kristalin yaitu intan dan grafit. intan lebih rapat
daripada grafit(3,51 g cm<sup>-3</sup>, 2,22 g cm<sup>-3</sup>),namun grafit
lebih stabil, dengan 2,9 kJ mol<sup>-1</sup>, pada 300 K dan tekanan 1 atm.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Titik leleh dan titik didih dari karbon
sangat tinggi.atom karbon sangat kecil apabila dibandingkan dengan atom-atom
lainnya. Jari-jari ion yang dihitung dalam kristal unsur-unsur ini bahkan lebih
kecil lagi.karena atom-atomnya berada dalam keadaan oksidasi positif. Karena
rapatan muatan karbon,ion-ionnya tidak terdapat sebagai partikel yang berdiri
sendiri dalam senyawa, tetapi tertahan dengan ikatan kovalen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat kimia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon sangat tak reaktif pada suhu biasa.
apabila karbon bereaksi, tidak ada kecenderungan dari atom-atom karbon untuk
kehilangan elektron-elektron terluar dan membentuk kation sederhana seperti C<sup>4+</sup>.
Ion ini akan mempunyai rapatan-rapatan muatan begitu tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alotropi karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Alotropi karbon ada tiga, yaitu intan, grafit dan
fullurene. </span>Semua alotrop karbon berbentuk padat dalam kondisi normal,
tetapi grafit merupakan alotrop yang paling stabil secara termodinamik di
antara alotrop-alotrop lainnya<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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o:title="intan gmbar"/>
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diasah menjadi kristal-kristal gemerlapan dan merupakan mineral yang paling
keras, hal ini di sebabkan karena setiap atom karbon terikat dengan empat atom
karbon lain melalui ikatan sigma yang mengakibatkan intan menjadi sangat keras.
</span>Intan memiliki konduktivitas listik yang sangat rendah. Di bawah kondisi
normal, intan memiliki konduktivitas termal yang tertinggi di antara
materi-materi lain yang diketahui. <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Intan dapat dihasilkan dari grafit hanya
dengan pemberian tekanan tinggi, dan suhu tinggi diperlukan untuk mendapatkan
laju perubahan yang diinginkan. Intan dapat secara alamiah terbentuk bila
kondisi-kondisi ini disediakan oleh proses-proses geologi.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Pada tahun 1955 dilaporkan adanya suatu
sintesis intan dari grafit yang berhasil. meskipun grafit dapat langsung diubah
menjadi intan pada kira-kira 3000<sup>0</sup>K dan tekanan diatas 125
kbar,untuk mendapatkan laju perubahan yang berguna, digunakan suatu katalis
logam transisi seperti Cr, Fe, atau Pt. Tampak suatu lelehan logam terbentuk
diatas grafit, melarutkan sebagian dan mengendap sebagai intan yang kurang
larut. Intan sampai dengan 0,1 karat (20 mg) dari kualitas industri yang tinggi
dapat dihasilkan secara rutin dengan harga yang bersaing. Intan akan terbakar
diudara pada 600 samapi 800<sup>0</sup> tetapi kereaktifan kimianya jauh lebih
rendah dari grafit atau karbon amorft.</span><span lang="IN" style="background: black; border: none black 1.0pt; color: black; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-border-alt: none black 0in; mso-font-width: 0%; padding: 0in;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="background: black; border: none black 1.0pt; color: black; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-border-alt: none black 0in; mso-font-width: 0%; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="142" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="330" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Grafit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Grafit adalah zat padat hitam yang lebih lunak
dari pada intan. Atom – atom karbon dalam grafit tersusun dalam jaringan
raksasa terbentuk lembaran pararel. </span>Grafit berstruktur lapisan yang
terdiri atas cincin atom karbon beranggotakan 6 yang mirip cincin benzen yang
terkondensasi tanpa atom hydrogen<span lang="IN">. </span>Jarak
karbon-karbon dalam lapisan adalah 142 pm dan ikatannya memiliki karakter
ikatan rangkap analog dengan senyawa aromatik. Karena jarak antar lapisan adalah
335 pm dan lapis-lapis tersebut diikat oleh ikatan yang relatif lemah yakni
gaya van der Waals, lapisan-lapisan ini dengan mudah akan saling menggelincir
bila dikenai gaya. Hal inilah yang merupakan asal mula sifat lubrikasi grafit.
Berbagai molekul, seperti logam alkali, halogen, halida logam, dan senyawa
organik dapat menginterkalasi lapisan grafit dan membentuk senyawa interkalasi<span lang="IN">.</span> Grafit memiliki sifat
semi-logam, konduktivitasnya (10-3Ω cm paralel dengan lapisan dan hantarannya
sekitar 100 kali lebih kecil dalam arah tegak lurus lapisan).<span lang="IN"> Setiap atom C pada grafit berikatan dengan tiga
atom karbon lain melalui ikatan </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span>s</span></span><span lang="IN"> (sigma). Setiap atom C ini masih
mempunyai satu elektron. Dan elektron-elektron itu kemudian berpasangan kedalam
ikatan </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span>p</span></span><span lang="IN"> (phi) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_22" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:113.25pt;
height:137.25pt;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image008.jpg"
o:title="gambar grafit"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="183" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_22" width="151" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Bentuk modifikasi grafit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Modifikasi grafit dikenal dalam bentuk kristal
mikrografit yang bersifat amorf ( karbon amorf ). Karbon amorf berwarna hitam,
namun berbeda dengan grafit. Karbon amorf tidak dapat Menghantarkan listrik.
Bentuk karbon amorf yang di kenal adalah kokas, jelaga (karbon black), arang,
batu bara dan karbon aktif. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:9.75pt;margin-top:27pt;width:137.25pt;height:113.7pt;
z-index:251658752;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.jpg"
o:title="gambar fulerene"/>
<w:wrap type="square"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="152" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1028" width="183" /><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fullerene<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span>Ful</span><span lang="IN">l</span><span>eren</span><span lang="IN">e</span> adalah
nama generik untuk alotrop karbon 3 dimensi, dengan molekul C<sub>60</sub>
yang berbentuk bola sepak merupakan contoh khas (Gambar 4.6). R. E. Smalley, H.
W. Kroto dkk mendeteksi C<sub>60</sub> dalam spektrum massa produk pemanasan
grafit dengan laser pada tahun 1985, dan isolasi fuleren dari apa yang disebut
jelaga “<i>soot</i>” dilaporkan pada 1991. Strukturnya adalah ikosahedral
terpancung (di sudut-sudutnya) dan antar atom karbonnya ada karakter ikatan
rangkap. Fuleren larut dalam pelarut organik, dalam benzen larutannya bewarna
ungu. Biasanya, fuleren diisolasi dan dimurnikan dengan
kromatografi. Berbagai riset dalam kereaktifan dan sifat fisik fuleren
misalnya sifat superkonduktornya sangat populer. Selain C<sub>60</sub>, C<sub>70</sub>
dan karbon nanotube kini juga menarik banyak minat riset.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_7"
o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="struktur c60" style='width:177.75pt;
height:192pt;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.jpg"
o:title="struktur c60"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="struktur c60" height="256" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="237" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Interaksi langsung karbon dengan logam
atau oksida logam pada suhu tinggi memberikan senyawaan yang disebut karbida.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Logam transisi memberikan <i>interstisi </i>dimana
atom karbon mengisi lubang oktahedral dalam deretan kemasan rapat atom
logam.logam yang lebih kecil Cr,Mn,Fe,Co, dan Ni memberikan karbida yang
bersifat antara jenis ionik dan karbida interstisi dan ini terhidrolisis oleh
air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Senyawa Anorganik Karbon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
monoksida(CO)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon monoksida dapat dibuat secara
komersil dengan hidrogen melalui pembentukan uap kembali atau pembakaran
sebagian hidrokarbon dengan reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> → CO + H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas ini tidak berwarna dan mempunyai titik didih
-190. Dapat digunakan sebagai bahan bakar industri melalui reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">2CO(g) +O<sub>2(g)</sub>→2CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO juga dapat terjadi sebagai hasil samping
pembakaran senyawa organik dalam ruang kurang oksigen.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18 </sub>+6O<sub>2(g) </sub>→
8CO +4H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Secara besar-besaran dapat dibuat dengan reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>(S)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO +H<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO sangat berbahaya bagi manusia maupun hewan,
karena CO berikatan kuat dengan hemoglobin darah. hemoglobin berfungsi
mengedarkan oksigen dari paru-paru ke seluruh tubuh. Orang yang mengisap CO
akan kekurangan oksigen dan dapat berakibat fatal.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
Dioksida(CO<sub>2</sub>)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon dioksida mempunyai struktur molekul
linier dan bersifat non polar. Gas ini larut dalam air.terdapat diudara dan
sangat penting bagi tumbuhan sebagai bahan fotosintesis serta merupakan
komponen nafas yang dikeluarkan oleh hewan ataupun manusia, karena dihasilkan
dari oksidasi makanan dalam tubuh.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CO<sub>2</sub> dapat dibuat dengan
membakar karbon senyawa hidrokarbon, atau gas CO dengan oksigen yang cukup.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>(s)</sub> + O<sub>2(g)</sub> → CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CH<sub>4(aq)</sub> + 2O<sub>2(g)</sub> → CO<sub>2(g)</sub>
+ H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub></span><sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
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<span lang="IN">2CO<sub>(g)</sub> + O<sub>2(g(</sub> → 2CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Dilaboratorium gas CO<sub>2</sub> dapat
dibuat dengan mereaksikan garam karbonat dengan asam seperti :</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CaCO<sub>3(s)</sub> + 2HCl<sub>(aq)</sub> → CaCl<sub>2(s)</sub>
+ H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO<sub>2</sub> tidak beracun,tetapi
konsentrasi yang terlalu tinggi dalam udara adalah tidak sehat, karena
merendahkan konsentrasi O<sub>2</sub> dan menimbulkan efek fisikologis yang
membahayakan.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Jumlah CO<sub>2</sub> yang sangat besar
sekali. dihasilkan oleh aktifitas manusia, meningkatnya gas CO<sub>2</sub>
dikhawatirkan atmosfer mungkin menjadi begitu panas, sehingga akan muncul
perubahan suhu yang serius yang sering juga disebut efek rumah kaca.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbonat dan
Bikarbonat</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbonat dan bikarbonat adalah senyawa
yang melimpah dan sangat berguna serta terkenal. Kebanyakan karbonat hanya
sedikit larut dalam air. Misalnya CaCO<sub>3</sub>, BaCO<sub>3</sub>, MgCO<sub>3</sub>
dan PbCO<sub>3</sub>. Banyak bikarbonat hanya stabil dalam larutan air.
Contohnya ialah Ca(HCO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, Mg(HCO<sub>3</sub>. Semua
logam IA kecuali Litium membentuk karbonat yang larut, dimana yang paling murah
dan berguna adalah NaHCO<sub>3 </sub>(Soda kue), Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>(Soda
abu).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
Disulfida(CS<sub>2</sub>)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CS<sub>2</sub> adalah cairan yang mudah
terbakar dan dapat dipakai sebagai bahan pembuat CCl<sub>4,</sub>dengan reaksi:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CS<sub>2</sub> + 3Cl<sub>2</sub> → CCl<sub>4</sub>
+S<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hidrogen
Sianida (HCN</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">HCN adalah senyawa gas bersifat
racun,tetapi penting dalam industri seperti industri plastik.Senyawa HCN dapat
dibuat secara komersil melalui reaksi:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">NH<sub>3</sub> +CH<sub>4</sub> → HCN + 3H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">SIKLUS KARBON<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:367.5pt;height:267.75pt;
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-24521178079213537602012-10-01T07:42:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:42:19.545-07:00makalah karbon<br />
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB I</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PENDAHULUAN</span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
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</ol>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon merupakan salah satu unsur dari
unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan IV A dan merupakan salah unsur
terpenting dalam kehidupan sehari-hari karena terdapat lebih banyak senyawaan
yang terbentuk dari unsur karbon.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Keistimewaan karbon yang unik adalah
kecenderungannya secara alamiah untuk mengikat dirinya sendiri dalam
rantai-rantai atau cincin-cincin,tidak hanya dengan ikatan tunggal, C - C ,
tetapi juga mengandung ikatan ganda C = C, serta rangkap tiga,C≡C.Akibatnya,
jenis senyawa karbon luar biasa banyaknya. kini diperkirakan terdapat sekitar
dua juta jenis senyawa karbon,dan jumlah itu makin meningkat dengan laju
kira-kira lima persen per tahun.Alasan bagi kestabilan termal rantai-rantai
karbon adalah kekuatan hakiki yang tinggi dari ikatan tunggal C - C.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Konfigurasi elektron karbon dalam keadaan
dasar adalah (1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>2) </sup>mudah terhibridasi
menghasilkan perangkat orbital sp<sup>3</sup>, atau sp<sup>2</sup>+p, atau sp+p<sup>2</sup>.
Lebih dari sembilan puluh persen senyawa karbon merupakan senyawa sintetik,
sedangkan sisanya diperoleh dari mahluk hidup (tumbuh-tumbuhan,hewan,jamur,dan
mikroorganisme) serta fosil mereka (batubara dan minyak bumi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">2. Permasalahan</span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Permasalahan yang akan kami bahas dalam
makalah ini adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">a. Karbon dan Sifat-sifat <span> </span>karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">b. Sejarah karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">c. Alotropi karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">d. Senyawa Anorganik karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">e. Siklus karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB II</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon dan sifat-sifat karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.1. Karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Karbon merupakan
unsur kimia yang mempunyai simbol C d<span lang="IN">engan </span><span> </span>nomor atom 6<span lang="IN"> dan termasuk</span> unsur golongan <span lang="IN">IV A</span><span> </span>pada tabel periodi<span lang="IN">k. K</span>arbon merupakan unsur non-logam dan
bervalensi 4 (tetravalen), yang berarti bahwa terdapat empat elektron yang
dapat digunakan untuk membentuk ikatan<span>
</span>kovalen. Terdapat tiga macam isotop karbon yang ditemukan secara alami,
yakni 12C<span> </span>dan 13C<span> </span>yang stabil, dan 14C yang bersifat radioaktif
dengan waktu paruh peluruhannya sekitar 5730 tahun<span lang="IN">. </span>Karbon merupakan salah satu dari di antara
beberapa unsur yang diketahui keberadaannya sejak zaman kuno<span lang="IN">. </span>Istilah "karbon" berasal dari
bahasa Latin carbo, yang berarti batu bara.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Karbon adalah
unsur paling berlimpah ke-15 di kerak Bumi dan ke-4 di alam semesta. Karbon
terdapat pada semua jenis makhluk hidup, dan pada manusia, karbon merupakan
unsur paling berlimpah kedua (sekitar 18,5%) setelah oksigen.[6] Keberlimpahan
karbon ini, bersamaan dengan keanekaragaman senyawa organik dan kemampuannya
membentuk polimer membuat karbon sebagai unsur dasar kimiawi kehidupan. Unsur
ini adalah unsur yang paling stabil diantara unsur-unsur yang lain, sehingga
dijadikan patokan dalam mengukur satuan massa atom.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Sumber karbon
anorganik terbesar terdapat pada batu kapur, dolomit, dan karbon dioksida,
sedangkan sumber organik terdapat pada batu bara, tanah gambut, minyak bumi,
dan klatrat metana. Karbon dapat membentuk lebih banyak senyawa daripada
unsur-unsur lainnya, dengan hampir 10 juta senyawa organik murni yang telah
dideskripsikan sampai sekarang<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.2 Sifat-Sifat
karbon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">1. <b>sifat
fisika</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon mempunyai sifat fisik yang khas
yaitu mempunyai dua bentuk kristalin yaitu intan dan grafit. intan lebih rapat
daripada grafit(3,51 g cm<sup>-3</sup>, 2,22 g cm<sup>-3</sup>),namun grafit
lebih stabil, dengan 2,9 kJ mol<sup>-1</sup>, pada 300 K dan tekanan 1 atm.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Titik leleh dan titik didih dari karbon
sangat tinggi.atom karbon sangat kecil apabila dibandingkan dengan atom-atom
lainnya. Jari-jari ion yang dihitung dalam kristal unsur-unsur ini bahkan lebih
kecil lagi.karena atom-atomnya berada dalam keadaan oksidasi positif. Karena
rapatan muatan karbon,ion-ionnya tidak terdapat sebagai partikel yang berdiri
sendiri dalam senyawa, tetapi tertahan dengan ikatan kovalen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat kimia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon sangat tak reaktif pada suhu biasa.
apabila karbon bereaksi, tidak ada kecenderungan dari atom-atom karbon untuk
kehilangan elektron-elektron terluar dan membentuk kation sederhana seperti C<sup>4+</sup>.
Ion ini akan mempunyai rapatan-rapatan muatan begitu tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alotropi karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN">Alotropi karbon ada tiga, yaitu intan, grafit dan
fullurene. </span>Semua alotrop karbon berbentuk padat dalam kondisi normal,
tetapi grafit merupakan alotrop yang paling stabil secara termodinamik di
antara alotrop-alotrop lainnya<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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o:title="intan gmbar"/>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="200" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="179" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Intan merupakan zat padat tidak berwarna yang bisa
diasah menjadi kristal-kristal gemerlapan dan merupakan mineral yang paling
keras, hal ini di sebabkan karena setiap atom karbon terikat dengan empat atom
karbon lain melalui ikatan sigma yang mengakibatkan intan menjadi sangat keras.
</span>Intan memiliki konduktivitas listik yang sangat rendah. Di bawah kondisi
normal, intan memiliki konduktivitas termal yang tertinggi di antara
materi-materi lain yang diketahui. <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Intan dapat dihasilkan dari grafit hanya
dengan pemberian tekanan tinggi, dan suhu tinggi diperlukan untuk mendapatkan
laju perubahan yang diinginkan. Intan dapat secara alamiah terbentuk bila
kondisi-kondisi ini disediakan oleh proses-proses geologi.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Pada tahun 1955 dilaporkan adanya suatu
sintesis intan dari grafit yang berhasil. meskipun grafit dapat langsung diubah
menjadi intan pada kira-kira 3000<sup>0</sup>K dan tekanan diatas 125
kbar,untuk mendapatkan laju perubahan yang berguna, digunakan suatu katalis
logam transisi seperti Cr, Fe, atau Pt. Tampak suatu lelehan logam terbentuk
diatas grafit, melarutkan sebagian dan mengendap sebagai intan yang kurang
larut. Intan sampai dengan 0,1 karat (20 mg) dari kualitas industri yang tinggi
dapat dihasilkan secara rutin dengan harga yang bersaing. Intan akan terbakar
diudara pada 600 samapi 800<sup>0</sup> tetapi kereaktifan kimianya jauh lebih
rendah dari grafit atau karbon amorft.</span><span lang="IN" style="background: black; border: none black 1.0pt; color: black; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-border-alt: none black 0in; mso-font-width: 0%; padding: 0in;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="background: black; border: none black 1.0pt; color: black; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-border-alt: none black 0in; mso-font-width: 0%; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Grafit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Grafit adalah zat padat hitam yang lebih lunak
dari pada intan. Atom – atom karbon dalam grafit tersusun dalam jaringan
raksasa terbentuk lembaran pararel. </span>Grafit berstruktur lapisan yang
terdiri atas cincin atom karbon beranggotakan 6 yang mirip cincin benzen yang
terkondensasi tanpa atom hydrogen<span lang="IN">. </span>Jarak
karbon-karbon dalam lapisan adalah 142 pm dan ikatannya memiliki karakter
ikatan rangkap analog dengan senyawa aromatik. Karena jarak antar lapisan adalah
335 pm dan lapis-lapis tersebut diikat oleh ikatan yang relatif lemah yakni
gaya van der Waals, lapisan-lapisan ini dengan mudah akan saling menggelincir
bila dikenai gaya. Hal inilah yang merupakan asal mula sifat lubrikasi grafit.
Berbagai molekul, seperti logam alkali, halogen, halida logam, dan senyawa
organik dapat menginterkalasi lapisan grafit dan membentuk senyawa interkalasi<span lang="IN">.</span> Grafit memiliki sifat
semi-logam, konduktivitasnya (10-3Ω cm paralel dengan lapisan dan hantarannya
sekitar 100 kali lebih kecil dalam arah tegak lurus lapisan).<span lang="IN"> Setiap atom C pada grafit berikatan dengan tiga
atom karbon lain melalui ikatan </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span>s</span></span><span lang="IN"> (sigma). Setiap atom C ini masih
mempunyai satu elektron. Dan elektron-elektron itu kemudian berpasangan kedalam
ikatan </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span>p</span></span><span lang="IN"> (phi) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_22" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:113.25pt;
height:137.25pt;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image008.jpg"
o:title="gambar grafit"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="183" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_22" width="151" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Bentuk modifikasi grafit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Modifikasi grafit dikenal dalam bentuk kristal
mikrografit yang bersifat amorf ( karbon amorf ). Karbon amorf berwarna hitam,
namun berbeda dengan grafit. Karbon amorf tidak dapat Menghantarkan listrik.
Bentuk karbon amorf yang di kenal adalah kokas, jelaga (karbon black), arang,
batu bara dan karbon aktif. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:9.75pt;margin-top:27pt;width:137.25pt;height:113.7pt;
z-index:251658752;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.jpg"
o:title="gambar fulerene"/>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="152" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1028" width="183" /><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fullerene<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span>Ful</span><span lang="IN">l</span><span>eren</span><span lang="IN">e</span> adalah
nama generik untuk alotrop karbon 3 dimensi, dengan molekul C<sub>60</sub>
yang berbentuk bola sepak merupakan contoh khas (Gambar 4.6). R. E. Smalley, H.
W. Kroto dkk mendeteksi C<sub>60</sub> dalam spektrum massa produk pemanasan
grafit dengan laser pada tahun 1985, dan isolasi fuleren dari apa yang disebut
jelaga “<i>soot</i>” dilaporkan pada 1991. Strukturnya adalah ikosahedral
terpancung (di sudut-sudutnya) dan antar atom karbonnya ada karakter ikatan
rangkap. Fuleren larut dalam pelarut organik, dalam benzen larutannya bewarna
ungu. Biasanya, fuleren diisolasi dan dimurnikan dengan
kromatografi. Berbagai riset dalam kereaktifan dan sifat fisik fuleren
misalnya sifat superkonduktornya sangat populer. Selain C<sub>60</sub>, C<sub>70</sub>
dan karbon nanotube kini juga menarik banyak minat riset.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_7"
o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="struktur c60" style='width:177.75pt;
height:192pt;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.jpg"
o:title="struktur c60"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="struktur c60" height="256" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="237" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Interaksi langsung karbon dengan logam
atau oksida logam pada suhu tinggi memberikan senyawaan yang disebut karbida.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Logam transisi memberikan <i>interstisi </i>dimana
atom karbon mengisi lubang oktahedral dalam deretan kemasan rapat atom
logam.logam yang lebih kecil Cr,Mn,Fe,Co, dan Ni memberikan karbida yang
bersifat antara jenis ionik dan karbida interstisi dan ini terhidrolisis oleh
air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Senyawa Anorganik Karbon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
monoksida(CO)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon monoksida dapat dibuat secara
komersil dengan hidrogen melalui pembentukan uap kembali atau pembakaran
sebagian hidrokarbon dengan reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> → CO + H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas ini tidak berwarna dan mempunyai titik didih
-190. Dapat digunakan sebagai bahan bakar industri melalui reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">2CO(g) +O<sub>2(g)</sub>→2CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO juga dapat terjadi sebagai hasil samping
pembakaran senyawa organik dalam ruang kurang oksigen.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18 </sub>+6O<sub>2(g) </sub>→
8CO +4H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Secara besar-besaran dapat dibuat dengan reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>(S)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO +H<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO sangat berbahaya bagi manusia maupun hewan,
karena CO berikatan kuat dengan hemoglobin darah. hemoglobin berfungsi
mengedarkan oksigen dari paru-paru ke seluruh tubuh. Orang yang mengisap CO
akan kekurangan oksigen dan dapat berakibat fatal.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
Dioksida(CO<sub>2</sub>)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon dioksida mempunyai struktur molekul
linier dan bersifat non polar. Gas ini larut dalam air.terdapat diudara dan
sangat penting bagi tumbuhan sebagai bahan fotosintesis serta merupakan
komponen nafas yang dikeluarkan oleh hewan ataupun manusia, karena dihasilkan
dari oksidasi makanan dalam tubuh.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CO<sub>2</sub> dapat dibuat dengan
membakar karbon senyawa hidrokarbon, atau gas CO dengan oksigen yang cukup.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>(s)</sub> + O<sub>2(g)</sub> → CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CH<sub>4(aq)</sub> + 2O<sub>2(g)</sub> → CO<sub>2(g)</sub>
+ H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub></span><sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
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<span lang="IN">2CO<sub>(g)</sub> + O<sub>2(g(</sub> → 2CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Dilaboratorium gas CO<sub>2</sub> dapat
dibuat dengan mereaksikan garam karbonat dengan asam seperti :</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CaCO<sub>3(s)</sub> + 2HCl<sub>(aq)</sub> → CaCl<sub>2(s)</sub>
+ H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO<sub>2</sub> tidak beracun,tetapi
konsentrasi yang terlalu tinggi dalam udara adalah tidak sehat, karena
merendahkan konsentrasi O<sub>2</sub> dan menimbulkan efek fisikologis yang
membahayakan.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Jumlah CO<sub>2</sub> yang sangat besar
sekali. dihasilkan oleh aktifitas manusia, meningkatnya gas CO<sub>2</sub>
dikhawatirkan atmosfer mungkin menjadi begitu panas, sehingga akan muncul
perubahan suhu yang serius yang sering juga disebut efek rumah kaca.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbonat dan
Bikarbonat</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbonat dan bikarbonat adalah senyawa
yang melimpah dan sangat berguna serta terkenal. Kebanyakan karbonat hanya
sedikit larut dalam air. Misalnya CaCO<sub>3</sub>, BaCO<sub>3</sub>, MgCO<sub>3</sub>
dan PbCO<sub>3</sub>. Banyak bikarbonat hanya stabil dalam larutan air.
Contohnya ialah Ca(HCO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, Mg(HCO<sub>3</sub>. Semua
logam IA kecuali Litium membentuk karbonat yang larut, dimana yang paling murah
dan berguna adalah NaHCO<sub>3 </sub>(Soda kue), Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>(Soda
abu).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
Disulfida(CS<sub>2</sub>)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CS<sub>2</sub> adalah cairan yang mudah
terbakar dan dapat dipakai sebagai bahan pembuat CCl<sub>4,</sub>dengan reaksi:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CS<sub>2</sub> + 3Cl<sub>2</sub> → CCl<sub>4</sub>
+S<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hidrogen
Sianida (HCN</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">HCN adalah senyawa gas bersifat
racun,tetapi penting dalam industri seperti industri plastik.Senyawa HCN dapat
dibuat secara komersil melalui reaksi:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">NH<sub>3</sub> +CH<sub>4</sub> → HCN + 3H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">SIKLUS KARBON<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-65240900883102615482012-10-01T07:41:00.004-07:002012-10-01T07:41:51.026-07:00makalah karbon<br />
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB I</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PENDAHULUAN</span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
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</ol>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon merupakan salah satu unsur dari
unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan IV A dan merupakan salah unsur
terpenting dalam kehidupan sehari-hari karena terdapat lebih banyak senyawaan
yang terbentuk dari unsur karbon.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Keistimewaan karbon yang unik adalah
kecenderungannya secara alamiah untuk mengikat dirinya sendiri dalam
rantai-rantai atau cincin-cincin,tidak hanya dengan ikatan tunggal, C - C ,
tetapi juga mengandung ikatan ganda C = C, serta rangkap tiga,C≡C.Akibatnya,
jenis senyawa karbon luar biasa banyaknya. kini diperkirakan terdapat sekitar
dua juta jenis senyawa karbon,dan jumlah itu makin meningkat dengan laju
kira-kira lima persen per tahun.Alasan bagi kestabilan termal rantai-rantai
karbon adalah kekuatan hakiki yang tinggi dari ikatan tunggal C - C.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Konfigurasi elektron karbon dalam keadaan
dasar adalah (1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>2) </sup>mudah terhibridasi
menghasilkan perangkat orbital sp<sup>3</sup>, atau sp<sup>2</sup>+p, atau sp+p<sup>2</sup>.
Lebih dari sembilan puluh persen senyawa karbon merupakan senyawa sintetik,
sedangkan sisanya diperoleh dari mahluk hidup (tumbuh-tumbuhan,hewan,jamur,dan
mikroorganisme) serta fosil mereka (batubara dan minyak bumi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">2. Permasalahan</span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Permasalahan yang akan kami bahas dalam
makalah ini adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">a. Karbon dan Sifat-sifat <span> </span>karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">b. Sejarah karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">c. Alotropi karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">d. Senyawa Anorganik karbon</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">e. Siklus karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB II</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon dan sifat-sifat karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.1. Karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Karbon merupakan
unsur kimia yang mempunyai simbol C d<span lang="IN">engan </span><span> </span>nomor atom 6<span lang="IN"> dan termasuk</span> unsur golongan <span lang="IN">IV A</span><span> </span>pada tabel periodi<span lang="IN">k. K</span>arbon merupakan unsur non-logam dan
bervalensi 4 (tetravalen), yang berarti bahwa terdapat empat elektron yang
dapat digunakan untuk membentuk ikatan<span>
</span>kovalen. Terdapat tiga macam isotop karbon yang ditemukan secara alami,
yakni 12C<span> </span>dan 13C<span> </span>yang stabil, dan 14C yang bersifat radioaktif
dengan waktu paruh peluruhannya sekitar 5730 tahun<span lang="IN">. </span>Karbon merupakan salah satu dari di antara
beberapa unsur yang diketahui keberadaannya sejak zaman kuno<span lang="IN">. </span>Istilah "karbon" berasal dari
bahasa Latin carbo, yang berarti batu bara.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Karbon adalah
unsur paling berlimpah ke-15 di kerak Bumi dan ke-4 di alam semesta. Karbon
terdapat pada semua jenis makhluk hidup, dan pada manusia, karbon merupakan
unsur paling berlimpah kedua (sekitar 18,5%) setelah oksigen.[6] Keberlimpahan
karbon ini, bersamaan dengan keanekaragaman senyawa organik dan kemampuannya
membentuk polimer membuat karbon sebagai unsur dasar kimiawi kehidupan. Unsur
ini adalah unsur yang paling stabil diantara unsur-unsur yang lain, sehingga
dijadikan patokan dalam mengukur satuan massa atom.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Sumber karbon
anorganik terbesar terdapat pada batu kapur, dolomit, dan karbon dioksida,
sedangkan sumber organik terdapat pada batu bara, tanah gambut, minyak bumi,
dan klatrat metana. Karbon dapat membentuk lebih banyak senyawa daripada
unsur-unsur lainnya, dengan hampir 10 juta senyawa organik murni yang telah
dideskripsikan sampai sekarang<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.2 Sifat-Sifat
karbon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">1. <b>sifat
fisika</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon mempunyai sifat fisik yang khas
yaitu mempunyai dua bentuk kristalin yaitu intan dan grafit. intan lebih rapat
daripada grafit(3,51 g cm<sup>-3</sup>, 2,22 g cm<sup>-3</sup>),namun grafit
lebih stabil, dengan 2,9 kJ mol<sup>-1</sup>, pada 300 K dan tekanan 1 atm.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Titik leleh dan titik didih dari karbon
sangat tinggi.atom karbon sangat kecil apabila dibandingkan dengan atom-atom
lainnya. Jari-jari ion yang dihitung dalam kristal unsur-unsur ini bahkan lebih
kecil lagi.karena atom-atomnya berada dalam keadaan oksidasi positif. Karena
rapatan muatan karbon,ion-ionnya tidak terdapat sebagai partikel yang berdiri
sendiri dalam senyawa, tetapi tertahan dengan ikatan kovalen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat kimia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon sangat tak reaktif pada suhu biasa.
apabila karbon bereaksi, tidak ada kecenderungan dari atom-atom karbon untuk
kehilangan elektron-elektron terluar dan membentuk kation sederhana seperti C<sup>4+</sup>.
Ion ini akan mempunyai rapatan-rapatan muatan begitu tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alotropi karbon<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Alotropi karbon ada tiga, yaitu intan, grafit dan
fullurene. </span>Semua alotrop karbon berbentuk padat dalam kondisi normal,
tetapi grafit merupakan alotrop yang paling stabil secara termodinamik di
antara alotrop-alotrop lainnya<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="200" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="179" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Intan merupakan zat padat tidak berwarna yang bisa
diasah menjadi kristal-kristal gemerlapan dan merupakan mineral yang paling
keras, hal ini di sebabkan karena setiap atom karbon terikat dengan empat atom
karbon lain melalui ikatan sigma yang mengakibatkan intan menjadi sangat keras.
</span>Intan memiliki konduktivitas listik yang sangat rendah. Di bawah kondisi
normal, intan memiliki konduktivitas termal yang tertinggi di antara
materi-materi lain yang diketahui. <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Intan dapat dihasilkan dari grafit hanya
dengan pemberian tekanan tinggi, dan suhu tinggi diperlukan untuk mendapatkan
laju perubahan yang diinginkan. Intan dapat secara alamiah terbentuk bila
kondisi-kondisi ini disediakan oleh proses-proses geologi.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Pada tahun 1955 dilaporkan adanya suatu
sintesis intan dari grafit yang berhasil. meskipun grafit dapat langsung diubah
menjadi intan pada kira-kira 3000<sup>0</sup>K dan tekanan diatas 125
kbar,untuk mendapatkan laju perubahan yang berguna, digunakan suatu katalis
logam transisi seperti Cr, Fe, atau Pt. Tampak suatu lelehan logam terbentuk
diatas grafit, melarutkan sebagian dan mengendap sebagai intan yang kurang
larut. Intan sampai dengan 0,1 karat (20 mg) dari kualitas industri yang tinggi
dapat dihasilkan secara rutin dengan harga yang bersaing. Intan akan terbakar
diudara pada 600 samapi 800<sup>0</sup> tetapi kereaktifan kimianya jauh lebih
rendah dari grafit atau karbon amorft.</span><span lang="IN" style="background: black; border: none black 1.0pt; color: black; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-border-alt: none black 0in; mso-font-width: 0%; padding: 0in;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="background: black; border: none black 1.0pt; color: black; layout-grid-mode: line; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-border-alt: none black 0in; mso-font-width: 0%; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Grafit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Grafit adalah zat padat hitam yang lebih lunak
dari pada intan. Atom – atom karbon dalam grafit tersusun dalam jaringan
raksasa terbentuk lembaran pararel. </span>Grafit berstruktur lapisan yang
terdiri atas cincin atom karbon beranggotakan 6 yang mirip cincin benzen yang
terkondensasi tanpa atom hydrogen<span lang="IN">. </span>Jarak
karbon-karbon dalam lapisan adalah 142 pm dan ikatannya memiliki karakter
ikatan rangkap analog dengan senyawa aromatik. Karena jarak antar lapisan adalah
335 pm dan lapis-lapis tersebut diikat oleh ikatan yang relatif lemah yakni
gaya van der Waals, lapisan-lapisan ini dengan mudah akan saling menggelincir
bila dikenai gaya. Hal inilah yang merupakan asal mula sifat lubrikasi grafit.
Berbagai molekul, seperti logam alkali, halogen, halida logam, dan senyawa
organik dapat menginterkalasi lapisan grafit dan membentuk senyawa interkalasi<span lang="IN">.</span> Grafit memiliki sifat
semi-logam, konduktivitasnya (10-3Ω cm paralel dengan lapisan dan hantarannya
sekitar 100 kali lebih kecil dalam arah tegak lurus lapisan).<span lang="IN"> Setiap atom C pada grafit berikatan dengan tiga
atom karbon lain melalui ikatan </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span>s</span></span><span lang="IN"> (sigma). Setiap atom C ini masih
mempunyai satu elektron. Dan elektron-elektron itu kemudian berpasangan kedalam
ikatan </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span>p</span></span><span lang="IN"> (phi) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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o:title="gambar grafit"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="183" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_22" width="151" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Bentuk modifikasi grafit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Modifikasi grafit dikenal dalam bentuk kristal
mikrografit yang bersifat amorf ( karbon amorf ). Karbon amorf berwarna hitam,
namun berbeda dengan grafit. Karbon amorf tidak dapat Menghantarkan listrik.
Bentuk karbon amorf yang di kenal adalah kokas, jelaga (karbon black), arang,
batu bara dan karbon aktif. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
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z-index:251658752;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.jpg"
o:title="gambar fulerene"/>
<w:wrap type="square"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="152" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1028" width="183" /><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fullerene<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span>Ful</span><span lang="IN">l</span><span>eren</span><span lang="IN">e</span> adalah
nama generik untuk alotrop karbon 3 dimensi, dengan molekul C<sub>60</sub>
yang berbentuk bola sepak merupakan contoh khas (Gambar 4.6). R. E. Smalley, H.
W. Kroto dkk mendeteksi C<sub>60</sub> dalam spektrum massa produk pemanasan
grafit dengan laser pada tahun 1985, dan isolasi fuleren dari apa yang disebut
jelaga “<i>soot</i>” dilaporkan pada 1991. Strukturnya adalah ikosahedral
terpancung (di sudut-sudutnya) dan antar atom karbonnya ada karakter ikatan
rangkap. Fuleren larut dalam pelarut organik, dalam benzen larutannya bewarna
ungu. Biasanya, fuleren diisolasi dan dimurnikan dengan
kromatografi. Berbagai riset dalam kereaktifan dan sifat fisik fuleren
misalnya sifat superkonduktornya sangat populer. Selain C<sub>60</sub>, C<sub>70</sub>
dan karbon nanotube kini juga menarik banyak minat riset.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_7"
o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="struktur c60" style='width:177.75pt;
height:192pt;visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.jpg"
o:title="struktur c60"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="struktur c60" height="256" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="237" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbida<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Interaksi langsung karbon dengan logam
atau oksida logam pada suhu tinggi memberikan senyawaan yang disebut karbida.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Logam transisi memberikan <i>interstisi </i>dimana
atom karbon mengisi lubang oktahedral dalam deretan kemasan rapat atom
logam.logam yang lebih kecil Cr,Mn,Fe,Co, dan Ni memberikan karbida yang
bersifat antara jenis ionik dan karbida interstisi dan ini terhidrolisis oleh
air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Senyawa Anorganik Karbon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 1.4pt; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
monoksida(CO)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon monoksida dapat dibuat secara
komersil dengan hidrogen melalui pembentukan uap kembali atau pembakaran
sebagian hidrokarbon dengan reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> → CO + H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas ini tidak berwarna dan mempunyai titik didih
-190. Dapat digunakan sebagai bahan bakar industri melalui reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">2CO(g) +O<sub>2(g)</sub>→2CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO juga dapat terjadi sebagai hasil samping
pembakaran senyawa organik dalam ruang kurang oksigen.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18 </sub>+6O<sub>2(g) </sub>→
8CO +4H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Secara besar-besaran dapat dibuat dengan reaksi </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>(S)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO +H<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO sangat berbahaya bagi manusia maupun hewan,
karena CO berikatan kuat dengan hemoglobin darah. hemoglobin berfungsi
mengedarkan oksigen dari paru-paru ke seluruh tubuh. Orang yang mengisap CO
akan kekurangan oksigen dan dapat berakibat fatal.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
Dioksida(CO<sub>2</sub>)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbon dioksida mempunyai struktur molekul
linier dan bersifat non polar. Gas ini larut dalam air.terdapat diudara dan
sangat penting bagi tumbuhan sebagai bahan fotosintesis serta merupakan
komponen nafas yang dikeluarkan oleh hewan ataupun manusia, karena dihasilkan
dari oksidasi makanan dalam tubuh.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CO<sub>2</sub> dapat dibuat dengan
membakar karbon senyawa hidrokarbon, atau gas CO dengan oksigen yang cukup.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">C<sub>(s)</sub> + O<sub>2(g)</sub> → CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CH<sub>4(aq)</sub> + 2O<sub>2(g)</sub> → CO<sub>2(g)</sub>
+ H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub></span><sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
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<span lang="IN">2CO<sub>(g)</sub> + O<sub>2(g(</sub> → 2CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Dilaboratorium gas CO<sub>2</sub> dapat
dibuat dengan mereaksikan garam karbonat dengan asam seperti :</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CaCO<sub>3(s)</sub> + 2HCl<sub>(aq)</sub> → CaCl<sub>2(s)</sub>
+ H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + CO<sub>2(g)</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Gas CO<sub>2</sub> tidak beracun,tetapi
konsentrasi yang terlalu tinggi dalam udara adalah tidak sehat, karena
merendahkan konsentrasi O<sub>2</sub> dan menimbulkan efek fisikologis yang
membahayakan.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Jumlah CO<sub>2</sub> yang sangat besar
sekali. dihasilkan oleh aktifitas manusia, meningkatnya gas CO<sub>2</sub>
dikhawatirkan atmosfer mungkin menjadi begitu panas, sehingga akan muncul
perubahan suhu yang serius yang sering juga disebut efek rumah kaca.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbonat dan
Bikarbonat</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Karbonat dan bikarbonat adalah senyawa
yang melimpah dan sangat berguna serta terkenal. Kebanyakan karbonat hanya
sedikit larut dalam air. Misalnya CaCO<sub>3</sub>, BaCO<sub>3</sub>, MgCO<sub>3</sub>
dan PbCO<sub>3</sub>. Banyak bikarbonat hanya stabil dalam larutan air.
Contohnya ialah Ca(HCO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, Mg(HCO<sub>3</sub>. Semua
logam IA kecuali Litium membentuk karbonat yang larut, dimana yang paling murah
dan berguna adalah NaHCO<sub>3 </sub>(Soda kue), Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>(Soda
abu).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karbon
Disulfida(CS<sub>2</sub>)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CS<sub>2</sub> adalah cairan yang mudah
terbakar dan dapat dipakai sebagai bahan pembuat CCl<sub>4,</sub>dengan reaksi:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CS<sub>2</sub> + 3Cl<sub>2</sub> → CCl<sub>4</sub>
+S<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hidrogen
Sianida (HCN</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">HCN adalah senyawa gas bersifat
racun,tetapi penting dalam industri seperti industri plastik.Senyawa HCN dapat
dibuat secara komersil melalui reaksi:</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">NH<sub>3</sub> +CH<sub>4</sub> → HCN + 3H<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">SIKLUS KARBON<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:367.5pt;height:267.75pt;
visibility:visible'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.jpg"
o:title="daur-karbon"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="357" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="490" /><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-47543604444022233062012-10-01T07:41:00.002-07:002012-10-01T07:47:13.931-07:00makalah gas mulia<br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></b></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas mulia adalah unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam
golongan VIIIA yang memiliki kestabilan yang sangat tinggi dan sebagian
ditemukan di alam dalam bentuk monoatomik karena sifat stabilnya. Unsur-unsur
yang terdapat dalam gas mulia yaitu Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon(Ar),
Kripton(Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn). Gas-gas ini pun sangat sedikit
kandungannya di bumi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gas Mulia terdapat dalam atmosfer bumi, untuk Helium terdapat di luar
atmosfer. Helium dapat terbentuk dari peluruhan zat radioaktif uranium dan
thorium. Semua unsur - unsur gas mulia terdiri dari atom -atom yang berdiri
sendiri. Unsur gas mulia yang terbanyak di alam semesta adalah Helium (banyak
terdapat di bintang) yang </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">merupakan bahan bakar dari
matahari. Radon amat sedikit jumlahnya di atmosfer atau udara. Dan sekalipun
ditemukan akan cepat berubah menjadi unsur lain, karena radon bersifat radio
aktif. Dan karena jumlahnya yang sangat sedikit pula radon disebut juga sebagi
gas jarang.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rumusan Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masalah
yang kami bahas dalam makalah gas mulia ini adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi gas mulia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat-sifat gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Pembuatan gas mulia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa pada gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegunanan Gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan
rumusan masalah diatas, maka tujuan disusunnya makalah ini adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan definisi gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan sejaran penemuan unsure gas
mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan sifat fisi dan sifat kimia
gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan pembuatan dan senyawa pada
gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan kegunaan gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">BAB
II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Gas Mulia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_FCZct8RQXvPxGU5lemmgDeCLUshyphenhyphenNgiMCH6bHrKw_iruCF5qAUxKnWfCz-8KRok2UU9H3SBRlDgmDEfn-Kfcp_MGrg7LCLynrlETQuHLKDfTgFTQgL_J1Ge0VMIZuDfMEL3bSdDE4680/s1600-h/tabel-kimia.jpg"><img align="left" border="0" height="322" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg" title="" v:shapes="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5319513216402609122" width="213" /></a><!--[endif]-->Gas
mulia adalah unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan VIIIA yang memiliki
kestabilan yang sangat tinggi dan sebagian ditemukan di alam dalam bentuk
monoatomik karena sifat stabilnya, <span style="color: black;">mempunyai sifat
lengai, tidak reaktif, dan susah bereaksi dengan bahan kimia lain. Gas mulia
juga merupakan golongan kimia yang unsur-unsurnya memiliki elektron valensi
luar penuh, sehingga menjadi golongan yang paling stabil dalam sistem periodik
unsur. Unsur-unsurnya adalah <b>He</b> (Helium), <b>Ne</b> (Neon), <b>Ar</b>
(Argon), <b>Kr </b>(Kripton), <b>Xe</b> (Xenon), dan <b>Rn</b> (Radon) yang
bersifat radioaktif. Konfigurasi elektron unsur-unsur Gas Mulia adalah ns2,
np6, kecuali He 1s<sup>2</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Mulia yang sejati adalah unsur
monoatomik. Disebut mulia karena unsur-unsur ini sangat stabil, </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">berfasa gas pada suhu
ruang dan bersifat inert (sukar bereaksi dengan unsur lain). </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ditemukan satupun senyawa alami dari gas mulia. Menurut <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis"><span style="color: black;">Lewis</span></a>, kestabilan gas mulia tersebut disebabkan
konfigurasi elektronnya yang terisi penuh, yaitu konfigurasi <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oktet&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Oktet (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">oktet</span></a>
(<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duplet&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Duplet (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">duplet</span></a>
untuk Helium). Kestabilan gas mulia dicerminkan oleh energi ionisasinya yang
sangat besar, dan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afinitas_elektron&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Afinitas elektron (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">afinitas
elektronnya</span></a> yang sangat rendah.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berikut
ini adalah asal-usul mana unsur-unsur Gas Mulia yang diambil dari bahasa
Yunani, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Helium à ήλιος (<i>ílios</i> or <i>helios</i>)
= Matahari<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Neon à νέος (<i>néos)</i> = Baru<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Argon à αργός (<i>argós)</i> = Malas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kripton à κρυπτός (<i>kryptós)</i> =
Tersembunyi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Xenon à ξένος (<i>xénos)</i> = Asing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Radon (pengecualian) diambil dari
Radium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah
Gas Mulia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah gas mulia awal dari penemuan Cavendish pada
tahun 1785. Cavendish menemukan sebagian kecil bagian udara (kurang dari 1/200
bagian) sama sekali tidak bereaksi walaupun sudah melibatkan gas-gas atmosfer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada tahun
1894, seorang ahli kimia Inggris bernama </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Lord Raleigh dan Sir
William Ramsay </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mengidentifikasi
zat baru yang terdapat dalam udara. Sampel udara yang sudah diketahui
mengandung nitrogen, oksigen, dan karbon dioksida dipisahkan. Ternyata dari
hasil pemisahan tersebut, masih tersisa suatu gas yang tidak reaktif (<i>inert</i>).
Gas tersebut tidak dapat bereaksi dengan zat-zat lain sehingga dinamakan <b><i>argon</i></b> (dari bahasa Yunani <i>argos</i>
yang berarti malas). Empat tahun kemudian Ramsay menemukan unsur baru lagi,
yaitu dari hasil pemanasan mineral <i>kleverit</i>. Dari mineral tersebut
terpancar sinar alfa yang merupakan spektrum gas baru. Spektrum gas tersebut
serupa dengan garis-garis tertentu dalam spektrum matahari. Untuk itu, diberi
nama <b><i>helium</i></b> (dari bahasa
Yunani <i>helios</i> berarti matahari). </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Nama Helium sendiri
merupakan saran dari Lockyer dan Frankland. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada saat ditemukan, kedua unsur ini tidak dapat
dikelompokkan ke dalam golongan unsur-unsur yang sudah oleh Mendeleyev karena
memiliki sifat berbeda. Kemudian Ramsey mengusulkan agar unsur tersebut
ditempatkan pada suatu golongan tersendiri, yaitu terletak antara golongan
halogen dan golongan alkali. Untuk melengkapi unsur-unsur dalam golongan
tersebut, pada tahun 1898 Ramsey dan Travers terus melakukan penelitian dan
akhirnya menemukan lagi unsur-unsur lainnya, yaitu <b><i>neon</i></b><i> </i><span>(</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ditemukan
dengan cara mencairkan udara dan melakukan pemisahan dari gas lain dengan
penyulingan bertingkat</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">,
<b><i>kripton</i></b>, dan <b><i>xenon</i></b> (</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ditemukan
dalam residu yang tersisa setelah udara cair hampir menguap semua</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> / hasil destilasi udara cair). </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
tahun 1900 <b><i>Radon</i></b> ditemukan oleh Friedrich Ernst Dorn, yang menyebutnya
sebagai pancaran radium. William Ramsay dan Robert Whytlaw-Gray menyebutnya
sebagai niton serta menentukan kerapatannya sehingga mereka menemukan Radon
adalah zat yang paling berat di masanya (sampai sekarang). Nama Radon sendiri
baru dikenal pada tahun 1923. <span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Radon amat sedikit jumlahnya di
atmosfer atau udara. Dan sekalipun ditemukan akan cepat berubah menjadi unsur
lain, karena radon bersifat radioaktif. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">unsur
<span>gas mulia</span> terbanyak di alam
semesta adalah <span>helium</span> (pada
bintang-bintang) </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">karena
Helium merupakan bahan bakar dari matahari.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada masa
itu, golongan tersebut merupakan kelompok unsur-unsur yang tidak bereaksi
dengan unsur-unsur lain (inert) dan diberi nama golongan unsur gas mulia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Di tahun
1898, Huge Erdmann mengambil nama Gas Mulia (<i>Noble Gas</i>) dari bahasa
Jerman <i>Edelgas</i> untuk menyatakan tingkat kereaktifan Gas Mulia yang
sangat rendah. Nama <i>Noble</i> dianalogikan dari <i>Noble Metal</i> (Logam
Mulia), emas, yang dihubungkan dengan kekayaan dan kemuliaan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Para ahli zaman dahulu yakin bahwa
unsur-unsur gas mulia <span style="color: black;">benar-benar </span></span><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inert&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Inert (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">inert</span></a></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">.
Pendapat ini dipatahkan, setelah pada tahun 1962, </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neil_Bartlett&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Neil Bartlett (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Neil Bartlett</span></a></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, seorang ahli kimia</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> dari Kanada berhasil
membuat senyawa xenon, yaitu XePtF<sub>6</sub>. Sejak itu, berbagai senyawa gas
mulia berhasil dibuat. Dan akhirnya istilah untuk menyebut zat-zat telah
berganti. Yang awalnya disebut gas inert (lembam) telah berganti menjadi gas
mulia yang berarti stabil atau sukar bereaksi. <span class="fullpost">Senyawa gas
mulia yang ditemukan pertama kali adalah XePtF6.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b></span><!--[endif]--><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelimpahan
di Alam<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Semua unsur gas mulia terdapat di udara, kecuali
radon yang merupakan unsur radioaktif. Unsur gas mulia yang paling banyak
terdapat di udara adalah argon </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang merupakan komponen ketiga terbanyak dalam udara setelah
nitrogen dan oksigen. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Unsur-unsur Gas Mulia, kecuali Radon,
melimpah jumlahnya karena terdapat dalam udara bebas. Argon terdapat di udara
bebas dengan kadar 0,93%, Neon 1,8×10<sup>-3</sup>%, Helium 5,2×10<sup>-4</sup>%,
Kripton 1,1×10<sup>-4</sup>%, dan Xenon 8,7×10<sup>-6</sup>%. Helium adalah
unsur terbanyak jumlahnya di alam semesta karena Helium adalah salah satu unsur
penyusun bintang.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium diperoleh dari sumur-sumur gas alam di Texas
dan Kansas (Amerika Serikat).</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Helium dapat terbentuk dari peluruhan zat radioaktif uranium dan thorium.
Udara mengandung gas Mulia (Ar, Ne, Xe, dan Kr) walaupun dalam jumlah yang
kecil, gas mulia di Industri di peroleh sebagai hasil samping dalam Industri
pembuatan gas nitrogen dan O</span><sub><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.1pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.1pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<span class="fullpost"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat-sifat
gas mulia</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat-Sifat
Umum :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"></td>
</tr>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"></td>
</tr>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span><img alt="*" height="13" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="13" /><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tidak
Berwarna, tidak berbau, tidak berasa, sedikit larut dalam air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span><img alt="*" height="13" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="13" /><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mempunyai
elektron valensi 8, dan khusus untuk Helium elektron valensinya 2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span><img alt="*" height="13" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="13" /><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Molekul-molekulnya
terdiri atas satu atom (monoatom).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gas mulia merupakan unsur gas pada suhu kamar dan mendidih
hanya beberapa derajat di atas titik cairnya. Jari-jari, titik leleh serta
titik didih gasnya bertambah seiring bertambahnya nomor atom. Sedangkan energi
pengionnya berkurang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berikut merupakan beberapa sifat
dari gas mulia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tabel 1. Sifat-sifat
Gas Mulia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gas Mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nomor Atom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Titik Leleh (˚C)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Titik Didih (˚C)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Energi Ionisasi (kJ/mol)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jari-jari Atom (Angstrom)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: -.9pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-272,2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-268,9<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2738<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">0,50</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ne<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-248,7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-245,9<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2088<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">0,65<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-189,2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-185,7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1520<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">0,95<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kr<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">36<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-156,6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-152,3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1356<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1,10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Xe<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">54<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-111,9<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-107,1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1170<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1,30<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">86<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-71<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-62<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1040<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1,45<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari tabel
diatas dapat dilihat jari – jari atom yang kecil </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(dalam satu golongan, semakin keatas semakin kecil)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
mempunyai energi ionisasi besar artinya elektronnya sangat sukar dilepaskan, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">elektron terluar relatif lebih
tertarik ke inti atom. Oleh sebab itu, atom-atom gas mulia sangat sukar untuk
bereaksi. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari atas ke bawah jari – jari atom makin besar,
energi ionisasinya makin kecil atau makin mudah melepaskan elektron, sehingga
gas mulia dari atas ke bawah makin reaktif. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kestabilan unsur-unsur golongan gas mulia dan s</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">emakin
besarnya harga energi ionisasi suatu atom</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> menyebabkan unsur-unsur gas mulia sukar membentuk ion </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(terionisasi),
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span> </span>artinya sukar untuk melepas elektron </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">agar
berubah jadi ion positif. Selain itu makin besar ukuran sebuah atom, makin
mudah melepas elektron kulit terluarnya, karena jaraknya makin jauh dari
intinya yang bermuatan positif. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kereaktifan gas mulia akan berbanding lurus dengan jari-jari
atomnya, jadi kereaktifan gas mulia akan bertambah dari He ke Rn hal ini
disebabkan pertambahan jari-jari atom</span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
yang mengakibatkan gaya tarik inti atom terhadap elektron kulit terluar
berkurang, sehingga <span style="color: black;">lebih </span></span></span><span style="color: black;"><a href="file:///E:/TUGAS%20KULIAH/TUGAS%20SEMESTER%203/KUMPULAN%20MAKALAH%20ANORGANIK/MAKALAH%20G%20A%20S%20%20%20M%20U%20L%20I%20A.doc"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">mudah</span></a></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
melepaskan diri dan ditarik oleh atom lain. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tetapi gas mulia adalah unsur yang
tidak reaktif karena memiliki konfigurasi elektron yang sudah stabil, hal ini
didukung kenyataan bahwa gas mulia di alam selalu berada sebagai atom tunggal
atau monoatomik. Tetapi bukan berarti gas mulia tidak dapat bereaksi, hingga
sekarang gas mulia periode 3 ke atas (Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) sudah dapat berreaksi
dengan unsur yang sangat elektronegatif seperti Flourin dan Oksigen. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sampai
saat ini, senyawa <span>gas mulia</span> yang
sudah dapat bereaksi dengan zat lain adalah <span>xenon</span> dan <span>kripto</span>n,
sedangkan <span>helium</span>, <span>neon</span>, dan <span>argon</span> masih sangat stabil.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Titik didih dan titik leleh unsur-unsur gas mulia lebih
kecil dari pada suhu kamar (25<sup>0</sup>C atau 298 K) sehinga seluruh unsur
gas mulia berwujud gas. Karena kestabilan unsur-unsur gas mulia, maka di alam
berada dalam bentuk <i>monoatomik.</i><span>
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Titik
leleh dan titik didih unsur – unsur gas mulia perbedaannya sangat sedikit
misalnya Neon meleleh pada suhu -2490C dan mendidih pada suhu -2460C karena
gaya tarik atom – atom gas mulia sangat kecil.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adapula
hal penting yang menyebabkan gas mulia amat stabil yaitu konfigurasi
elektronnya. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Elektron
valensi gas mulia sudah memenuhi kaidah Duplet untuk He dan kaidah Oktet untuk
Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe dan Rn. <span style="color: black;">Konfigurasi elektron gas mulia
(kecuali He) berakhir pada ns<sup>2</sup> np<sup>6</sup>. Konfigurasi tersebut
merupakan konfigurasi elektron yang stabil, sebab semua elektron pada kulitnya
sudah berpasangan. Oleh sebab itu, tidak memungkinkan terbentuknya ikatan
kovalen dengan atom lain. Energi ionisasi yang tinggi menyebabkan gas mulia
sukar menjadi ion positif dan berarti sukar membentuk senyawa secara ionik.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berikut
adalah konfigurasi elektron gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tabel
2. Konfigurasi elektron gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin-left: 48.35pt; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 75%px;">
<tbody>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: 1.15pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Unsur</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 2.6pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nomor Atom</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Konfigurasi Elektron</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1s<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ne<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">[He] 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kr<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">36<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">[Ar] 4s<sup>2</sup> 3d<sup>10</sup>
4p<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Xe<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">54<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">[Kr] 5s<sup>2</sup> 4d<sup>10</sup>
5p<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span> </span>Rn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span> </span><span> </span>86<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">[Xe] 6s<sup>2</sup> 5d<sup>10</sup>
6p<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karena
konfigurasi elektronnya yang stabil gas mulia juga biasa digunakan untuk
penyingkatan konfigurasi elektron bagi unsur lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">contoh :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Br = 1s<sup>2</sup>
2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>6</sup> 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> 3d<sup>10</sup>
4p<sup>5 </sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menjadi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Br = [Ar]
4s<sup>2</sup> 3d<sup>10</sup> 4p<sup>5<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dua
elektron dari He membuat subkulit s menjadi penuh dan unsur-unsur gas mulia
yang lain pada kulit terluarnya terdapat 8 elektron karena kulit terluarnya
telah penuh maka gas mulia bersifat stabil dan tidak reaktif. Jadi <i>afinitas
elektronnya</i> mendekati nol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.35pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan
Gas Mulia</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 49.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Helium</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium (He) ditemukan
terdapat dalam gas alam di Amerika Serikat. Gas helium mempunyai titik didih yang
sangat rendah, yaitu -268,8˚C sehingga pemisahan gas helium dari gas alam
dilakukan dengan cara pendinginan sampai gas alam akan mencair (sekitar -156˚C)
dan gas helium terpisah dari gas alam.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 49.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas
Argon, Neon, Kripton, dan Xenon</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Udara mengandung gas
mulia argon (Ar), neon (Ne), krypton (Kr), dan xenon (Xe) walaupun dalam jumlah
yang kecil. Gas mulia di industri diperoleh sebagai hasil samping dalam
industri pembuatan gas nitrogen dan gas oksigen dengan proses destilasi udara
cair. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td height="10" width="124"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img height="255" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="Object_x0020_3" width="375" /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><!--[endif]--><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada proses destilasi
udara cair, udara kering (bebas uap air) didinginkan sehingga terbentuk udara
cair. Pada kolom pemisahan gas argon bercampur dengan banyak gas oksigen dan
sedikit gas nitrogen karena titik didih gas argon (-189,4˚C) tidak jauh beda
dengan titik didih gas oksigen (-182,8˚C). Untuk menghilangkan gas oksigen
dilakukan proses pembakaran secara katalitik dengan gas hidrogen, kemudian
dikeringkan untuk menghilangkan air yang terbentuk. Adapun untuk menghilangkan
gas nitrogen, dilakukan cara destilasi sehingga dihasilkan gas argon dengan
kemurnian 99,999%. Gas neon yang mempunyai titik didih rendah (-245,9˚C) akan
terkumpul dalam kubah kondensor sebagai gas yang tidak terkonsentrasi (tidak
mencair).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas kripton (Tb = -153,2˚C)
dan xenon (Tb = -108˚C) mempunyai titik didih yang lebih tinggi dari gas
oksigen sehingga akan terkumpul di dalam kolom oksigen cair di dasar kolom
destilasi utama. Dengan pengaturan suhu sesuai titik didih, maka masing-masing
gas akan terpisah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Semua
unsur gas mulia terdapat di udara, kecuali Radon(Rn) yang hanya terdapat
sebagai isotop radioaktif berumur pendek, yang diperoleh dari peluruhan radio
aktif atom radium. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Unsur radon (Rn) yang
merupakan unsur radioaktif Radium (Ra) dengan memancarkan sinar alfa (helium)
sesuai dengan persamaan reaksi:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="fullpost"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">88</span></sup></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ra<sub>226</sub>
→ <sup>86</sup>Rn<sub>222 </sub>+ <sup>2</sup>He<sub>4</sub></span></span><sub><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></sub></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.35pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_9"
o:spid="_x0000_s1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:261.75pt;margin-top:28.5pt;width:196.5pt;height:2in;
z-index:-2;visibility:visible' wrapcoords="-165 0 -165 21375 21600 21375 21600 0 -165 0">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image006.png"
o:title=""/>
<w:wrap type="tight"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="192" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/ivonk/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="262" /><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembentukan Senyawa pada Gas Mulia</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gas Mulia
adalah gas yang sudah memiliki 8 elektron valensi dan memiliki kestabilan yang
tinggi. Tetapi gas mulia pun masih dapat bereaksi dengan atom lain. Karena
sebenarnya tidak semua sub kuit pada gas mulia terisi penuh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Contoh:<br />
Ar : [Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebenarnya atom Ar masih memiliki 1
Sub kulit yang masih kosong yaitu sub kulit d jadi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ar : [Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup>
3d<sup>0</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">jadi masih bisa diisi oleh atom-atom
lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sampai
dengan tahun 1962, para ahli masih yakin bahwa unsur-unsur gas mulia tidak
bereaksi. Kemudian seorang ahli kimia kanada bernama Neil Bartlet berhasil
membuat persenyawaan yang stabil antara unsur gas mulia dan unsur lain, yaitu
XePtF<sub>6</sub>.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Keberhasilan
ini didasarkan pada reaksi:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PtF<sub>6
</sub>+ O<sub>2</sub> → (O<sub>2</sub>)+ (PtF<sub>6</sub>)<sup>-</sup></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PtF6
ini bersifat oksidator kuat. Molekul oksigen memiliki harga energi ionisasi
1165 kJ/mol, harga energi ionisasi ini mendekati harga energi ionisasi unsur
gas mulia Xe = 1170 kJ/mol.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Atas
dasar data tersebut, maka untuk pertama kalinya Bartlet mencoba mereaksikan Xe
dengan PtF6 dan ternyata menghasilkan senyawa yang stabil sesuai dengan
persamaan reaksi:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Xe
+ PtF<sub>6</sub> → Xe+(PtF<sub>6</sub>)<sup>-</sup></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Setelah
berhasil membentuk senyawa XePtF<sub>6</sub>, maka gugurlah anggapan bahwa gas
mulia tidak dapat bereaksi. Kemudian para ahli lainnya mencoba melakukan
penelitian dengan mereaksikan xenon dengan zat-zat oksidator kuat, diantaranya
langsung dengan gas flourin dan menghasilkan senyawa XeF<sub>2</sub>, XeF<sub>4</sub>,
dan XeF<sub>6</sub>. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Reaksi
gas mulia lainnya, yaitu krypton menghasilkan senyawa KrF<sub>2</sub>. Radon
dapat bereaksi langsung dengan F<sub>2</sub> dan menghasilkan RnF<sub>2</sub>.
Hanya saja senyawa KrF<sub>2</sub> dan RnF<sub>2</sub> bersifat (tidak stabil).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel
3. Beberapa senyawaan Xenon<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 637px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 31.15pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 31.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tingkat Oksidasi<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 31.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawaan <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 31.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bentuk<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 31.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Titik Didih (˚C)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 31.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Struktur<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 31.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tanda-tanda<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 58.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 58.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">II<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">IV<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 58.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">XeF<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">XeF<sub>4</sub><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 58.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 58.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">129<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">117<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 58.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Linear<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Segi-4<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 58.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Terhidrolisis menjadi Xe + O<sub>2</sub>;
sangat larut dalam HF<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 27.35pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">VI<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 27.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">XeF<sub>6</sub><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 24.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cs<sub>2</sub>XeF<sub>8</sub><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 24.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">XeOF<sub>4</sub><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 24.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">XeO<sub>3</sub><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 27.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Padatan kuning<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cairan tak berwarna<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 27.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">49,6<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">-46<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 27.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Oktahedral terdistorsi<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Archim. Antiprisma<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Piramid segi-4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Piramidal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 27.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil pada 400˚<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mudah meledak, higroskopik; stabil
dalam larutan<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">VIII<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">XeO<sub>4</sub><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">XeO<sub>6 </sub><sup>4-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas tak berwarna<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Garam tak berwarna<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrahedral<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Oktahedral<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mudah meledak<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Anion- anion HXeO<sub>6</sub><sup>3-</sup>,
H<sub>2</sub>XeO<sub>6</sub><sup>2-</sup>, H<sub>3</sub>XeO<sup>6-</sup> ada
juga<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa gas mulia He dan
Ne sampai saat ini belum dapat dibuat mungkin karena tingkat kestabilannya yang
sangat besar. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas-gas ini pun sangat sedikit
kandungannya di bumi. dalam udara kering maka akan ditemukan kandungan gas
mulia sebagai berikut : Helium = 0,00052 %; Neon = 0,00182 %; Argon = 0,934 %;
Kripton = 0,00011 %; Xenon = 0,000008; Radon = Radioaktif* <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tabel
4. contoh Reaksi dan cara pereaksian pada gas mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 646px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gas
Mulia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reaksi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nama
senyawa yang terbentuk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cara
peraksian<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ar(Argon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ar<sub>(s)</sub> + HF → HArF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Argonhidroflourida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Senyawa
ini dihasilkan oleh fotolisis dan matriks Ar padat dan stabil pada suhu
rendah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kr(Kripton)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kr<sub>(s)</sub> + F<sub>2</sub> <sub>(s)</sub>
→ KrF<sub>2</sub> <sub>(s)</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kripton
flourida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reaksi
ini dihasilkan dengan cara mendinginkan Kr dan F<sub>2</sub>pada suhu -196 <sup>0</sup>C
lalu diberi loncatan muatan listrik atau sinar X<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Xe(Xenon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + F<sub>2(g)</sub> → XeF<sub>2(s)</sub><br />
<br />
Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + 2F<sub>2(g)</sub> → XeF<sub>4(s)</sub><br />
<br />
Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + 3F<sub>2(g)</sub>→ XeF<sub>6(s)</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
<hr align="left" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
XeF<sub>6(s)</sub> + 3H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> → XeO<sub>3(s)</sub> +6HF<sub>(aq)<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6XeF<sub>4(s)</sub> + 12H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub>
→ 2XeO<sub>3(s)</sub> + 4Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + 3O<sub>(2)(g)</sub> + 24HF<sub>(aq)</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Xenon
flourida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
<hr align="left" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Xenon
oksida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">XeF<sub>2</sub>
dan XeF<sub>4</sub> dapat<br />
diperoleh dari pemanasan Xe dan F<sub>2</sub>pada tekanan6 atm, jika umlah
peraksi F<sub>2</sub> lebih besar maka akan diperoleh XeF<sub>6<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
<hr align="left" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">XeO<sub>4</sub>
dibuat dari reaksi disproporsionasi(reaksi dimana unsur pereaksi yang sama
sebagian teroksidasi dan sebagian lagi tereduksi) yang kompleks dari larutan
XeO<sub>3</sub> yang bersifat alkain<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rn(Radon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rn<sub>(g)</sub> + F2<sub>(g)</sub>
→ RnF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Radon
flourida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bereaksi
secara spontan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fluorida XeF<sub>2</sub>, XeF<sub>4</sub>, dan XeF<sub>6</sub> diperoleh
dengan mereaksikan xenon dengan flouor dalam kuantitas yang makin bertambah.
Dalam senyawa-senyawa ini, xenon mempunyai bilangan oksidasi genap +2, +4, dan
+6, yang khas bagi kebanyakan senyawaan xenon. Fluorida-fluorida adalah lahan
permulaan untuk mensintesis senyawaan xenon lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Satu-satunya produk yang diperoleh bila krypton bereaksi dengan fluor
adalah difluoridanya, KrF<sub>2</sub>. Tak dikenal lain-lain keadaan oksidasi
selain +2. Dari kira-kira selusin senyawaan krypton yang dikenal, semuanya
merupakan garam kompleks yang diturunkan dari KrF<sub>2</sub>. Karena radon
bersifat radioaktif dan mempunyai waktu paruh empat hari, kekimiawiannya sukar
dipelajari. Namun, eksistensi radon fluorida, baik yang mudah menguap maupun
yang tak mudah menguap, telah didemonstrasikan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kegunaan
Gas Mulia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Helium<br />
Helium merupakan zat yang ringan dan tidak mudah terbakar, Helium biasa
digunakan untuk mengisi balon udara, dan helium yang tidak reaktif digunakan
untuk mengganti nitrogen untuk membuat udara buatan yang dipakai dalam
penyelaman dasar laut. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Para penyelam bekerja
pada tekanan tinggi. Jika digunakan campuran nitrogen dan oksigen untuk membuat
udara buatan, nitrogen yang terisap mudah terlarut dalam darah dan dapat
menimbulkan halusinasi pada penyelam. Oleh para penyelam, keadaan ini disebut
“pesona bawah laut”. Ketika penyelam kembali ke permukaan, (tekanan atmosfer)
gas nitrogen keluar dari darah dengan cepat. Terbentuknya gelembung gas dalam
darah dapat menimbulkan rasa sakit atau kematian.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Helium yang berwujud cair juga dapat
digunakan sebagai zat pendingin karena memiliki titik uap yang sangat rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Neon<br />
Neon biasanya digunakan untuk pengisi bola lampu neon. Selain itu juga neon
dapat digunakan untuk berbagi macam hal seperti indicator tegangan tinggi, zat
pendingin, penangkal petir, dan mengisi tabung televisi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Argon<br />
</span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Argon digunakan dalam las titanium pada
pembuatan pesawat terbang atau roket. Argon juga digunakan dalam las stainless
steel dan sebagai pengisi bola lampu pijar karena argon tidak bereaksi dengan
wolfram (tungsten) yang panas.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kripton<br />
Kripton bersama argon digunakan sebagai pengisi lampu fluoresen bertekanan
rendah. Krypton juga digunakan dalam lampu kilat untuk fotografi kecepatan
tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Xenon<br />
Xenon dapat digunakan dalam pembuatan lampu untuk bakterisida (pembunuh
bakteri) dan pembuatan tabung elektron.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Radon<br />
Radon dapat digunakan dalam terapi kanker karena bersifat radioaktif. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Namun
demikian, jika radon terhisap dalam jumlah banyak, malah akan menimbulkan
kanker paru-paru. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Radon
juga dapat berperan sebagai sistem peringatan gempa, karena bila lempengan bumi
bergerak kadar radon akan berubah sehingga bisa diketahui bila adanya gempa
dari perubahan kadar radon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENUTUP<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas mulia adalah
unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan VIIIA yang memiliki kestabilan yang
sangat tinggi dan sebagian ditemukan di alam dalam bentuk monoatomik karena
sifat stabilnya. <span style="color: black;">Disebut mulia karena unsur-unsur ini
sangat stabil, </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">berfasa gas pada suhu ruang dan bersifat inert (sukar bereaksi
dengan unsur lain). </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ditemukan satupun
senyawa alami dari gas mulia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gas mulia adalah grup elemen kimia dengan sifat-sifat yang sama:
di kondisi standar, mereka semua tidak berbau, tidak berwarna, dan monoatomik
dengan reaktivitas yang sangat rendah. Mereka ditempatkan di grup 18 (8A) dari
tebel periodik (sebelumnya dikenal dengan grup 0), yaitu helium (He), neon
(Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), dan radon yang bersifat radioaktif
(Rn). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat-sifat gas mulia bisa dijelaskan dengan baik dengan
teori modern tentang struktur atom: valensi elektron kulit luar mereka dianggap
"penuh", memberi mereka sedikit sekali kesempatan untuk
berpartisipasi dalam reaksi kimia, dan hanya beberapa ratus senyawa yang telah
disiapkan. Titik didih dan titik leleh gas mulia mempunyai nilai yang dekat,
berbeda kurang dari 10 °C (18 °F); yang mengakibatkan mereka berbentuk cairan
dalam jangkauan suhu yang pendek. Jari-jari atom unsur-unsur Gas Mulia dari
atas ke bawah semakin besar karena bertambahnya kulit yang terisi elektron. Energi
Ionisasi dari atas ke bawah semakin kecil karena gaya tarik inti atom terhadap
elektron terluar semakin lemah. Afinitas Elektron unsur-unsur Gas Mulia sangat
kecil sehingga hampir mendekati nol. Titik didih unsur-unsur Gas Mulia
berbanding lurus dengan kenaikan massa atom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Farida, Ida. 2009. Modul Perkuliahan Kimia Anorganik I. Fakultas
Tarbiyah dan Keguruan Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Gunung Djati. Bandung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cotton dan Wilkinson. 1989. Kimia Anorganik Dasar. Jakarta:
UI-Press<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Keenan, dkk. 1979. Kimia untuk Universitas. Jakarta: Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Http _gas-mulia.blogspot.com_.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://kamuspengetahuan.blogspot.com/2009/03/kimia-unsur-gas-mulia-yang-stabil.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://chemiscihuy.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/definisi-sejarah-dan-sifat-gas-mulia/"><span style="color: black;">http://chemiscihuy.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/definisi-sejarah-dan-sifat-gas-mulia/</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://masterkimiaindonesia.com/"><span style="color: black;">http://masterkimiaindonesia.com/</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://gas-mulia.blogspot.com/2009/11/gas-mulia.html"><span style="color: black;">http://gas-mulia.blogspot.com/2009/11/gas-mulia.html</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_mulia"><span style="color: black;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_mulia</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://kimia.upi.edu/utama/bahanajar/kuliah_web/2007/Roni%20Sudra%20jat/home.html"><span style="color: black;">http://kimia.upi.edu/utama/bahanajar/kuliah_web/2007/Roni%20Sudra%20jat/home.html</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://adypurwoko.blogspot.com/2009/01/gas-mulia.html"><span style="color: black;">http://adypurwoko.blogspot.com/2009/01/gas-mulia.html</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://h4rv3st.blogspot.com/2008/06/unsur-unsur-gas-mulia.html"><span style="color: black;">http://h4rv3st.blogspot.com/2008/06/unsur-unsur-gas-mulia.html</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://www.scribd.com/doc/19015264/Tabel-Periodik-Golongan-VIIIA-2"><span style="color: black;">http://www.scribd.com/doc/19015264/Tabel-Periodik-Golongan-VIIIA-2</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://handoyodwiprakoso.blogspot.com/2009/02/tugas-kimia-bu-ninin.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-44040303770678315692012-10-01T07:40:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:41:02.965-07:00makalah germanium<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">BAB
I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembangunan diberbagai bidang terutama bidang
industri timbul berbagai masalah baru, hal ini terkait dengan pencemaran
lingkungan oleh limbah buangan dari industri – industri yang semakin bertambah
dari waktu ke waktu. Hal ini akan sangat berpengaruh pada kesehatan lingkungan.
Pencemaran ini terjadi pada perairan, udara dan tanah sebagai akibat dari
adanya berbagai aktivitas di atas. Pertumbuhan <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">kota</st1:city></st1:place> dengan perkembangan timbulnya industry,
kesadaran yang dan mengikutinya pengertian telah mendorong adanya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembuangan bahan buangan kimia maupun bahan pencemar
lainnya ke dalam air akan mempengaruhi kehidupan dalam air. Pada air sungai
yang telah tercemar terjadi penurunan kualitas air dan tentunya akan sangat
membahayakan bila dikonsumsi maupun digunakan untuk bidang pertanian.
Pencemaran yang diakibatkan oleh logam – logam berat akan memberikan pengaruh
yang negative terhadap kesehatan. Beberapa macam logam berat sangat beracun
terhadap tanaman, hewan, dan manusia. Logam – logam tersebut bersifat tahan
lama dalam waktu yang lama pula, bahkan ada juga logam beracun yang tidak dapat
dikenali baik dari warna maupun baunya. seperti <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span>
dan berbagai senyawanya. Hal ini tentunya sangat membahayakan karena sebagian
logam tersebut telah dipergunakan secara luas sebagai pestisida dan disebarkan
ke tata lingkungan sebagai pembuangan industry yang tidak diketahui. Jika hal
ini dibiarkan tentunya akan sangat merugikan masyarakat karena bisa menyebabkan
terjadinya keracunan kematian. Jenis limbah logam berat yang akan dibahas dalam
makalah ini adalah Arsen (As). Arsen atau <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span>
yang sering diketahui sebagai salah satu limbah yang berbahaya dan beracun
merupakan bahan pencemar yang banyak terdapat di alam sebagai suatu unsur
alami. Selain terdapat secara alami di alam, Arsen atau Arsenic juga ditemukan
dalam bentuk limbah buangan dari industri – industri yang mencemari sungai –
sungai yang mengalir sepanjang daerah pemukiman penduduk. Arsenic melebihi ini
nilai dikenal ambang sebagai batas bahan yang pencemar karena dan kandungannya
yang terdapat dalam sungai atau badan air telah ditentukan membahayakan untuk
dikonsumsi makhluk hidup. Selain itu, yang dapat menyebabkan kesakitan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
Persenyawaan
arsenik pun dikenal sangat beracun dan apabila dikonsumsi, <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span> ini dapat terakumulasi. Karena sifatnya yang
beracun, arsenic ini dapat membahayakan makhluk hidup terutama manusia sebab
dapat menimbulkan berbagai penyakit dalam tubuh bahkan kematian. Kasus
keracunan yang disebabkan oleh arsen ini terutama dapat ditemukan di <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
Keracunan arsenic yang terjadi di <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region></st1:place> tersebut disebabkan
karena masyarakat mengkonsumsi air yang telah terkontaminasi oleh arsen dari
sumur yang dibuat Pemeritah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan air bersih. Hal ini tentunya
perlu menjadi pelajaran bagi Pemerintah sebelum membuat kebijakan maupun
keputusan yang berwawasan lingkungan, sebab jika salah dalam mengambil
kebijakan dan tindakan maka akan menimbulkan kerugian bagi mayarakat</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
Selenium
adalah zat padat alami yang banyak tetapi tidak merata dalam kerak bumi. Hal
ini juga umumnya ditemukan di bebatuan dan tanah. Selenium, dalam bentuk murni
abu-abu metalik kristal hitam, sering disebut sebagai unsur selenium atau debu.
Elemental selenium diproduksi secara komersial, terutama sebagai produk
sampingan dari tembaga pemurnian. Selenium tidak sering ditemukan di lingkungan
dalam bentuk mendasar, tetapi biasanya dikombinasikan dengan zat lain.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Sebagian besar selenium dalam batuan
dikombinasikan dengan mineral sulfida atau dengan perak, tembaga, timah, nikel,
dan mineral. Selenium juga menggabung dengan oksigen untuk membentuk beberapa
zat-zat yang tidak berwarna putih atau kristal. Selenium dan senyawa yang
digunakan dalam beberapa perangkat fotografi, pistol bluing (solusi cair yang
digunakan untuk membersihkan bagian-bagian logam senjata), plastik, cat,
shampoo anti-ketombe, suplemen vitamin dan mineral, fungisida, dan beberapa
jenis kaca. Sebagai contoh, selenium sulfida digunakan di shampoo anti-ketombe
dengan nama dagang umum Selsun Blue. Selenium juga digunakan untuk menyiapkan
obat-obatan dan sebagai nutrisi suplemen pakan untuk unggas dan ternak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selenium terjadi secara alami di
lingkungan. Sebagai salah satu elemen, selenium tidak dapat diciptakan atau
dihancurkan, meskipun selenium dapat berubah bentuk dalam lingkungan. Pelapukan
batuan dan tanah dapat mengakibatkan rendahnya tingkat selenium dalam air, yang
dapat diambil oleh tanaman. Cuaca juga mengeluarkan selenium ke udara pada debu
halus seperti partikel. Letusan gunung berapi dapat melepaskan selenium di
udara. Selenium biasanya memasuki udara dari pembakaran batubara atau minyak.
Selenium yang mungkin ada dalam mengkombinasikan bahan bakar fosil dengan
oksigen ketika dibakar, yang kemudian bereaksi dengan air untuk membentuk
senyawa yang larut selenium. <br />
Partikel udara selenium, seperti dalam abu, dapat menetap di tanah atau air
permukaan. Pembuangan selenium dalam produk dan limbah komersial juga dapat
meningkatkan jumlah selenium dalam tanah. Bentuk dan nasib selenium dalam tanah
sangat tergantung pada keasaman lingkungan dan interaksi dengan oksigen. Dalam
ketiadaan oksigen ketika tanah asam, jumlah selenium yang dapat memasukkan
tanaman dan organisme harus rendah. Dengan demikian, ada kemungkinan
peningkatan paparan terhadap senyawa ini. Selenium dapat memasukkan air
permukaan di perairan saluran irigasi. Beberapa bukti menunjukkan bahwa
selenium dapat diambil dalam jaringan organisme perairan dan kemungkinan
peningkatan konsentrasi sebagai selenium dilewatkan melalui rantai makanan. <br />
Orang terpapar kadar rendah selenium setiap hari melalui makanan, air, dan
udara. Selenium juga merupakan elemen esensial bagi manusia dan hewan. Namun,
selenium dapat berbahaya bila diambil secara teratur dalam jumlah yang lebih tinggi
daripada yang dibutuhkan untuk kesehatan yang baik. Sebagian besar orang-orang
mendapatkan asupan selenium dari makanan, dan untuk tingkat yang lebih rendah,
dari air intake. Selenium yang berkadar rendah juga dapat ditemukan dalam air
minum. Orang-orang juga mungkin akan terkena selenium dari sumber-sumber
industri. Manusia biasanya tidak terkena selenium dalam jumlah besar di udara.
Pekerjaan di mana manusia dapat terpapar selenium di udara adalah industri
logam, selenium-proses pemulihan, cat manufaktur, dan perdagangan khusus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium
adalah logam, tapi benar-benar tanpa properti metalik. <br />
Karena terdapat dalam fisiologi fenomena yang dikenal sebagai efek oleh
dehydrogenating dimana ion negatif hidrogen (yang dapat dipandang sebagai
sebuah elektron) dibuang dari tubuh, itu mengarah ke asumsi bahwa germanium
mungkin memiliki aplikasi biologis menarik juga. Mengacu pada tindakan
germanium organik dalam menangkap dan mengkombinasikan dengan ion hidrogen yang
telah terkumpul di dalam tubuh untuk dihilangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Air <st1:city w:st="on">Lourdes</st1:city>: di Pyrenees di perbatasan Prancis Spanyol, ada
sebuah desa kecil bernama <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lourdes</st1:city></st1:place>
dengan jumlah penduduk sekitar 10.000. Sejauh ini banyak orang-orang
datang terdiri oleh sakit yang mencari penyembuhan penyakit dengan
bantuan air mengalir keluar dari batu yang dibangun katedral. Air ini
dianalisis dan ditemukan bahwa beberapa "keajaiban air" mengandung
jumlah yang relatif tinggi dari germanium. Harus dikatakan bahwa saya tidak
memiliki informasi mengenai apa senyawa lain yang terkandung dalam air <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lourdes</st1:city></st1:place> tetapi jika
dibandingkan dengan perairan lain jumlah germanium jauh lebih besar.<br />
Germanium dapat menyembuhkan penyakit dengan mendorong tubuh sebagai
kekuatan penyembuhan alami. Dengan meningkatkan aliran oksigen, germanium
merangsang laten kekuatan penyembuhan alami yang ada dalam tubuh manusia,
sehingga menghasilkan yang sangat efektif mengobati penyakit apapun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apakah
ada hubungan erat antara tindakan germanium dan proses penyembuhan alami dalam
tubuh. Dalam kasus-kasus klinis juga, germanium telah sangat efektif
dalam pengobatan sejumlah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh ketidakmampuan
adrenalin, termasuk pembesaran kelenjar prostat, kanker payudara dan kanker
rahim, gondok dan mvoma rahim, dll. Germanium dapat meningkatkan jumlah oksigen
diangkut oleh hemoglobin dalam sel darah merah. Pasokan oksigen ke sel-sel
jaringan dengan demikian meningkat. mengakibatkan aktivitas sel yang lebih
besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 28.35pt 31.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span><b>Rumusan
Masalah<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana sejarah penemuan Arsen,
germanium dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apa saja sifat fisis dan kimia
arsen, germanium dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana kelimpahan unsur arsen,
germanium dan selenium dialam?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apa saja senyawa arsen, germanium
dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apa saja kegunaan dan bahaya
unsure arsen, germanium dan arsenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>f.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana proses pembuatan arsen,
germanium dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>g.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana siklus unsur-unsur
diatas?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 28.35pt 31.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tujuan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui sejarah penemuan
arsen, germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui sifat fisis dan kimia
arsen,germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui senyawa
arsen,germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui kegunaan dan bahaya
arsen, germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui pembuatan arsen,
germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">BAB
II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">GERMANIUM,
ARSEN, dan SELENIUM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sejarah Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Keberadaan
unsur germanium telah ditemukan sekitar 100 tahun yang lalu oleh ahli kimia
Rusia, Mendeleev Omitri.Sementara pada tahun 1886, seorang kimiawan Jerman,
Clemens Winkler, membuat analisis kimia bijih argyrodite, melihat pada
penyelesaian analisisnya bahwa jumlah semua bahan tidak menambahkan ke jumlah
sebelumnya. Dalam upaya untuk menemukan substansi yang hilang, ia mengembangkan
dan bereksperimen dengan beberapa tes sampai akhirnya ia berhasil mengisolasi
itu. Dalam analisis berikutnya ia menemukan bahwa itu cocok deskripsi dari
elemen Mendeleev sebelumnya disebut "ekasilicon." Winkler memutuskan
untuk memberi nama unsur baru germanium, sebagai penghormatan kepada tanah
airnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sifat Fisis dan Sifat Kimia
Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium adalah
suatu unsur kimia dalam tabel periodik yang memiliki lambang unsur (Ge) dan
nomor atom 32. Unsur ini logam yang putih keabu-abuan, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place> atomnya 72.64 g/mol. Dalam bentuknya
yang murni, germanium berbentuk kristal dan rapuh. Germanium merupakan bahan
semikonduktor yang penting. Tehnik pengilangan-zona (<i>zone-refining
techniques</i>) memproduksi germanium kristal untuk semikonduktor dengan
kemurnian yang sangat tinggi. ciri-ciri fisik dan ciri-ciri atom germanium
adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-ciri
Fisik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Fasa<span> </span><span> </span>:
Padat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Jenis<span> </span>: 5.323 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> jenis cair pada titik lebur<span> </span>: 5.60 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik lebur<span> </span>:
1211.40 K<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik Didih<span> </span>: 3106
K<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kalor peleburan<span> </span>: 36.94
kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kalor penguapan<span> </span>: 334 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-ciri
Atom<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bilangan Oksidasi<span> </span>: 4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Elektronegativitas<span> </span>: 2.01 (skala
pauling)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Energy ionisasi<span> </span>: ke-1 762
kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>ke-2 1537.5 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>ke-3
3302.1 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">jari-jari atom<span> </span>: 125 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">jari-jari kovalen<span> </span>: 122 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelimpahan Germanium di Alam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Logam ini dapat
ditemukan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Argirodite, sulfide germanium dan
perak<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanite, yang mengandung 8%
unsure ini<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Biji seng<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Batu bara<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mineral-mineral lainnya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium murni
ditemukan dalam bentuk yang keras, berkilauan, berwarna putih keabu-abuan, tapi
merupakan metalloid yang rapuh. Germanium stabil di udara dan air pada keadaan
yang normal, dan sukar bereaksi dengan alkali dan asam, kecuali dengan asam nitrat.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Senyawa-Senyawa Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium tidak larut
dalam asam dan basa encer, tetapi larut perlahan dalam asam sulfat pekat dan
bereaksi keras dengan alkali cair untuk menghasilkan germinates (</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">2-. Germanium terjadi terutama di bilangan oksidasi
+4, meskipun banyak senyawa yang dikenal dengan keadaan oksidasi +2. Oksidasi
lainnya jarang terjadi seperti +3 ditemukan dalam senyawa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Dua germanium oksida
dikenal yaitu Germanium dioksida </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>dan merupakan
bubuk putih yang hanya sedikit larut dalam air tetapi bereaksi dengan alkali
untuk membentuk germinates. Monoksida, oksida germaous dapat diperoleh dengan
reaksi suhu tinggi dari </span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE </span><span style='position:relative;
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>dengan logam
Ge. Senyawa biner lainnya, kalkogen juga dikenal seperti disulpida </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>dan
monosulfida GES, selenide GeSe, dan telluride GeTe. Bentuk </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
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wsp:val="00D83AF1"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00D87320"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00E05D17"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00E45FE9"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00E671D1"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00ED4637"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00ED7F62"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00F403DD"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00F4449B"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00F733F4"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00FE06E1"/></wsp:rsids></w:docPr><w:body><w:p wsp:rsidR="00000000" wsp:rsidRDefault="00A02005"><m:oMathPara><m:oMath><m:sSub><m:sSubPr><m:ctrlPr><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr></m:ctrlPr></m:sSubPr><m:e><m:r><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr><m:t>GES</m:t></m:r></m:e><m:sub><m:r><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr><m:t>2</m:t></m:r></m:sub></m:sSub></m:oMath></m:oMathPara></w:p><w:sectPr wsp:rsidR="00000000"><w:pgSz w:w="12240" w:h="15840"/><w:pgMar 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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>sebagai
endapan putih ketika hydrogen sulfide dilewatkan melalui larutan asam kuat yang
mengandung Ge (IV). Disulfide ini lumayan larut dalam air dan dalam larutan
alkali kaustik atau sulfida basa. Tetapi tidak larut dalam air asam. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium klorida </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
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germane, </span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>tetra metal
germane.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan dan Bahaya Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 87.6pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level3 lfo1; mso-text-indent-alt: -17.0pt; tab-stops: list 87.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -87.6pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 40.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ketika germanium didoping dengan arsenik, galium
atau unsur-unsur lainnya, ia digunakan sebagai transistor dalam banyak barang
elektronik. Kegunaan umum germanium adalah sebagai bahan semikonduktor.
Kegunaan lain unsur ini adalah sebagai bahan pencampur logam, sebagai fosfor di
bola lampu pijar dan sebagai katalis. Germanium dan germanium oksida tembus
cahaya sinar infra merah dan digunakan dalam spekstroskopi infra mera dan
barang-baran optik lainnya, termasuk pendeteksi infra merah yang sensitif.
Index refraksi yang tinggi dan sifat dispersi oksidanya telah membuat germanium
sangat berguna sebagai lensa kamera <i>wide-angle</i> dan<i> microscope
objectives</i>. Bidang studi kimia organogermanium berkembang menjadi bidang
yang penting. Beberapa senyawa germanium memiliki tingkat keracunan yang rendah
untuk mamalia, tetapi memiliki keaktifan terhadap beberap jenis bakteria,
sehingga membuat unsur ini sangat berguna sebagai agen kemoterapi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Germanium transistor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Germanium
dipandang sebagai pengganti potensial untuk silicon pada chip mini. Kegunaan
lain dalam elektronika termasuk posfor di lampu neon. Germanium transistor
masih digunakan di beberapa pedal efek oleh musisi yang ingin memproduksi
karakter nada khas. Germanium dioksida juga digunakan dalam katalis untuk
polimerisasi dalam produksi polyethylene terephtalate.<span> </span>Selain itu juga germanium telah mendapatkan
popularitas dalam beberapa tahun terakhir terkenal karena kemempuannya untuk
meningkatkan fungsi system kekebalan tubuh pada pasien kanker. Ini tersedia di
Amerika Serikat sebagai suplemen makanan dalam bentuk kapsul, oral atau tablet,
dan juga telah ditemukan sebagai larutan injeksi. Sebelumnya bentuk anorganik,
khususnya garam sitrat-laktat, menyebabkan sejumlah kasus disfungsi ginjal,
steatosis hati<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Germanium
anorganik mampu melindungi tubuh dari pertumbuhan tumor dan kanker ganas dengan
jalan memperkuat sistem imun. Germanium dibutuhkan oleh tubuh, dalam satu hari
minimal 1 mg. Seperti halnya selenium, germanium juga termasuk ke dalam
golongan trace mineral.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Germanium
organik melindungi diri dari akumulasi amyloid, suatu produk oksidatif radikal
bebas (berdasarkan riset pada tikus). Kelebihan amyloid akan menyebabkan
amyloidosis, yaitu suatu penyakit yang diakibatkan ketidakseimbangan dalam
proses pemecahan protein yang menyebabkan terakumulasinya amyloid. Amyloidosis
diketahui berhubungan dengan penyakit inflammatori kronis, kelainan sel plasma,
deposisi amyloid di organ neuroendokrin, dan defisiensi kongenital enzim
(terutama enzim yang berperan dalam penguraian prekursor amyloid). Selain itu,
germanium organik juga melindungi sistein (suatu asam amino sulfhidril) dari
oksidasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 87.6pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level3 lfo1; mso-text-indent-alt: -17.0pt; tab-stops: list 87.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -87.6pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bahaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bahaya fisik yang dapat ditimbulkanoleh germanium,
dilihat dari bentuk gasnya, yang lebih berat dari pada udara sehingga dapat
berpindah dengan cepat sepanjang permukaan bumi. Selain itu, sebagi salah satu
logam berat, germanium juga memiliki dampak negatif apabila terakumulasi dalam
sistem perairan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembuatan Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Unsur ini diambil secara komersil
dari debu-debu pabrik pengolahan bijih-bijih seng, dan sebagai produk sampingan
beberapa pembakaran batubara. Germanium dapat dipisahkan dari logam-logam
lainnya dengan cara distilasi fraksi tetrakloridanya yang sangat reaktif.
Tehnik ini dapat memproduksi germanium dengan kemurnian yang tinggi</span>.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape alt="productioncap_pic3" id="_x0000_i1050" style="height: 87.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 151.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar cara
pengolahan germanium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape alt="our products" id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1051" style="height: 87.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 142.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="our products" src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image012.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh
product yang dihasilkan oleh germanium.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sejarah
Arsen <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
berasal dari kata arsenicum (bahasa Latin) dan kata arsenicon (bahasa Yunani)
yang artinya: orpiment kuning; dan laki-laki karena pada masa itu logam
dipercaya mempunyai jenis kelamin. Arsen juga diambil dari bahasa Arab yaitu
Az-zernikh yang artinya: orpiment dari <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Persia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (zerni-zar). Orpiment
sendiri artinya adalah mineral berwarna kuning cerah dengan komposisi arsenik
sulfida (As2S3). Arsen dilambangkan dengan As.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
dikenal sejak zaman prasejarah sehingga penemu arsen tidak diketahui secara
pasti. Dalam perkembangan sejarah, arsen dikenal sebagai racun pembunuh paling
populer. Arsen terkenal sebagai Raja Racun dan Racunnya Para Raja karena
kebanyakan korban arsen adalah para penguasa, bangsawan atau tuan tanah. Di
masa pemerintahan Ratu Victoria Inggris kegunaan arsen mengalami pergeseran.
Arsen dicampurkan dalam air cuka atau air kapur lalu diminum oleh para wanita
karena dipercaya mampu mempercantik kulit. Pada tahun 1250, Albertus Magnus
dipercaya sebagai orang pertama yang menemukan bagaimana cara mengisolasi
arsen, lalu pada tahun 1649 Johan Schroeder dikabarkan mampu membuat dan mempersiapkan
unsur ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sifat
Fisis dan Sifat Kimia Arsen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Logam
Arsen bewarna abu-abu, sangat rapuh, kristal dan semi-metal benda padat. Ia
berubah warna dalam udara, dan ketika dipanaskan teroksida sangat cepat menjadi
arsen oksida dengan bau bawang. Arsen dan senyawa-senyawanya sangat beracun. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Arsen mempunyai nomor atom 33
dengan <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place>
atom sebesar 74,9216 sma dan jari-jari atomnya 1,39Å. Volume atomnya adalah
13,10 cm3/mol. Strukutur atomnya berbentuk rombohedral. Arsen termasuk unsur
golonngan metaloid, mempunyai titik didih dan titik lebur tinggi, yaitu 867 K
dan 1090 K. Arsen mempunyai massa jenis 5,78 gram/cm3, kapasitas panas 0,33
j/gK, potensial ionisasi 9,81 volt, dan elektronegativitas sebesar 2,18. Harga
entalpi pembentukan dan penguapannya adalah 27,7 kJ/mol dan 32,4 kJ/mol.
Ciri-ciri fisik dan ciri-ciri atom arsen adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-Ciri Fisik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Fase <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>Solid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> jenis (sekitar suhu kamar) <span> </span>:<span>
</span>5,727 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:city></st1:place><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> jenis cair pada titik lebur <span> </span>:<span>
</span>5,22 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik lebur <span> </span>:<span> </span>1090 K (817 °C, 1503 °F)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik didih <span> </span>:<span> </span>887 K (614 °C, 1137 °F)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-Ciri Atom<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bilangan oksidasi <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>±3, 5 (oksida
asam lemah)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Elektronegativitas <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>2,18 (skala
Pauling)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Energi ionisasi <span> </span>:<span> </span>ke-1<span>
</span>947,0 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>:<span> </span>ke-2<span> </span>1798
kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span dir="RTL"></span><span dir="RTL" lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span dir="RTL"></span>:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>:<span> </span>ke-3<span>
</span>2735 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jari-jari atom <span> </span><span> </span>:<span>
</span>115 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jari-jari atom (terhitung) <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>114 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jari-jari kovalen <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>119 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelimpahan
Arsen di Alam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
merupakan unsur yang melimpah secara alami di alam. Arsen jarang ditemukan
dalam bentuk unsur karena arsen biasanya membentuk berbagai macam senyawa
kompleks, bisa berupa trivalen (As+3) atau pentavalen (As+5). Pada umumnya,
As+3 berupa As-anorganik, seperti senyawa As-pentoksida, asam arsenat,
Pb-arsenat, dan Ca-arsenat. As organik bisa berupa As+3, maupun As+5
diantaranya asam arsanilat atau bentuk metilasi. Arsen juga terdapat di dalam
tubuh mahluk hidup, baik hewan maupun tanaman dan bergabung dengan hidrogen
atau karbon membentuk As-organik. Kerang dikenal sebagai hewan dengan kadar
arsen organik tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
biasa ditemukan di dalam kerak bumi yaitu pada batuan sedimen dan beku yang
terdistribusi sebagai mineral. Kadar As tertinggi dalam bentuk arsenida dari
timah hitam, perak dan bentuk sulfida dari emas. Mineral lain yang mengandung
arsen adalah arsenopirit (FeAsS), realgar (As4S4), dan orpiment (As2S3).
Kandungan arsen di bumi antara 1,5-2 mg/kg (NAS, 1977). Tanah yang tidak
terkontaminasi arsen ditemukan mengandung kadar As antara 0,240 mg/kg, sedang
yang terkontaminasi kadarnya lebih dari 550 mg/kg (Walsh & Keeney, 1975).
Keberadaan arsen dalam tanah mampu menular pada tanaman. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Ada</st1:city></st1:place> tidaknya arsen dalam tanaman digunakan
sebagai indikator kandungan arsen dalam tanah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
juga terdapat dalam air dan udara dalam bentuk organik dan anorganik. Crecelius
(1974) menunjukkan bahwa 35% arsen anorganik terlarut dalam air hujan. Arsen
mampu mencemari air permukaan dengan kandungan yang bervariasi di setiap daerah
tercemar, yaitu berkisar 1 µg/l. Selain itu As juga terlarut dalam air sumur
dalam. Kadar arsen tinggi juga ditemukan pada air di lokasi di mana terdapat
aktivitas panas bumi (geothermal).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Senyawa-Senyawa
Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Bentuk
arsen yang terkenal adalah As2O3 arsen trioksida atau warangan. Warangan ini
bentuknya berupa bubuk berwarna putih yang larut dalam air. Bentuk lainnya
adalah bubuk kuning As2S3 dan bubuk merah As4S4. Keduanya digunakan sebagai
bahan cat, namun karena toksik akhirnya mereka tidak dipakai lagi. Adapun
bentuk gasnya, yang juga beracun adalah arsin As2H3. Senyawa Arsen lainnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Asam arsenat (H3AsO4) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Asam arsenit (H3AsO3)<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kadmium arsenida (Cd3As2) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Galium arsenida (GaAs) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Timbal biarsenat (PbHAsO4 )<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan
dan Bahaya Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
digunakan untuk melapisi logam dan senjata yang terbuat dari perunggu. Hal ini
menyebabkan senjata tersebut mempunyai daya bunuh tinggi. Di Indonesia, arsen
digunakan untuk mencuci keris oleh orang-orang zaman dulu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bidang
Kedokteran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
berperan dalam pembuatan berbagai obat, seperti: arsphenamine sebagai obat
penyakit sifilis; arsenat trioksida untuk terapi kanker; fowlers solution untuk
pengobatan penyakit psoriasis. Arsen juga digunakan sebagai komponen pengobatan
penyakit yang disebabkan oleh parasit dan pembuatan obat doping (doping agent).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bidang
pertaniaan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
sebagai bahan pembuatan pestisida untuk meracuni tikus telah dilarang
dikarenakan munculnya gangguan kesehatan manusia akibat terpapar arsen dalam
proses produksi <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bidang
Industri<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Dalam
bidang industri arsen berguna sebagai pewarna, pengawet kayu, bahan pembuatan
bronzing dan senjata. Arsen juga digunakan sebagai bahan campuran pewarna cat
rambut, mainan anak, pembungkus makanan, pewarna baju, serta berbagai jenis
campuran logam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Bahaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
bersifat toksik. Efek yang ditimbulkan bervariasi dari pusing hingga kematian
tergantung kadar arsen yang masuk dalam tubuh. Keberadaan arsen dalam jumlah
banyak dalam tubuh dapat menimbulkan keracunan. Bentuknya yang berupa bubuk,
tidak berasa dan tidak berbau membuat arsen tidak mudah dikenali saat
dicampurkan ke dalam makanan. Orang yang keracunan arsen akan menderita mual
dan muntah hebat, rasa nyeri pada organ dalam secara tiba-tiba, dehidrasi akut
dan lemas. Arsenic Pentoxide ( As205 ) yang terkandung dalam Udang bila
bereaksi dengan Vitamin C dalam perut dapat berubah menjadi Arsenic Trioxide (
As203 ) yang sangat beracun. Mengakibatkan hati, Jantung, ginjal, pembuluh
darah rusak, usus keluar darah, pembuluh darah melebar hingga menyebabkan
kematian yang mengerikan dengan kelima panca indra keluar darah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembuatan
Arsen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Seperti
yang telah disebutkan, arsen dapat dibuat melalui isolasi. Namun, proses
isolasi yang dilakukan di dalam laboratorium tidak terlalu diperlukan karena
pada realitanya arsen terdapat di alam dalam jumlah melimpah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Dalam
proses isolasi, arsen dibuat pada skala industri dengan pemanasan mineral yang
tepat dan sesuai, tanpa adanya udara dalam proses tersebut. Hasilnya, arsen
akan dikeluarkan dalam kondisi kental terpisah dari senyawaan asalnya sebagai
zat padat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Berikut ini persamaan reaksi yang
terjadi pada proses isolasi arsen yang dibuat dari senyawa FeAsS dan dipanaskan
pada suhu 700°C:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">FeAsS (s) → <st1:place w:st="on">FeS</st1:place>
(s) + As(g) → As(s)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Siklus
Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Pada
gambar dibawah ini dapat dilihat bagaimana terjadinya siklus beogeokimia
arsenik dalam udara, air dan sedimen.Arsen yang dilepaskan ke udara saat
memproduksi energi adalah 0,470, pada proses peleburan atau penambangan adalah
0,370, pada proses industri adalah 0,0530 dan akibat pembuangan atau limbah
adalah 0,003.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Sedimen
mengandung senyawa arsenat yang sebagian dapat larut dalam air kemudian diserap
kembali oleh sedimen. Dengan bantuan bakteri terdekomposisi menjadi senyawa
arsenit. Selanjutnya arsenit dirubah menjadi senyawa asam metil arsenit.
Sebagian asam metil arsenit larut dalam air dan sebagian lainnya dirubah oleh
bakteri menjadi asam dimetilarsenit. Asam dimetilarsenit dalam air dirubah
menjadi trimetilarsenit dan dimetilarsin. Di udara asam trimetilarsenit
bereaksi dengan dimetilarsin menghasilkan senyawa asam dimetilarsenit yang
dapat terserap kembali kedalam sedimen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1052" style="height: 195.75pt; width: 302.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Level
paparan arsen dalam lingkungan sangat bervariasiDalam Udara, level paparan oleh
arsen yang paling rendah adalah di daerah terpencil dan pedesaan sedangkan
level tertinggi adalah di daerah yang yang dekat dengan kawasan industri. Dalam
air, level paling rendah terdapat dalam air laut kemudian sungai, danau dan
yang paling tinggi ditemukan dalam air bawah tanah yang mengandung batuan
vulkanik atau kaya dengan mineral yang terdeposit. Dalam tanah dan sedimen,
level paparan arsen akan meningkat apabila ada kontaminasi arsenik yang
bersumber dari manusia atau sumber alamiah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sejarah
Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
ditemukan pada tahun 1817 oleh Jöns Jakob Berzelius, yang menemukan elemen yang
terkait dengan telurium (dinamai Bumi). Selenium ditemukan sebagai produk
sampingan dari produksi asam sulfat.<span>
</span>Pada tahun 1954, dari fungsi biologis spesifik selenium ditemukan pada
mikroorganisme.<span> </span>Esensial ini bagi
kehidupan mamalia ditemukan pada tahun 1957.<span>
</span>Pada 1970-an, itu ditunjukkan untuk adanya enzim. Hal ini diikuti oleh
penemuan selenocysteine di protein. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selama
tahun 1980-an, itu menunjukkan bahwa selenocysteine dikode oleh kodon TGA.
Mekanisme recoding yang bekerja pada bakteri bagian luar dan kemudian pada
mamalia (lihat elemen SECIS). Pertumbuhan konsumsi selenium secara historis
didorong oleh perkembangan stabil penggunaan baru, termasuk aplikasi dalam
peracikan karet, baja paduan, dan selenium rectifier. Selenium juga merupakan
material penting dalam drum printer laser dan mesin fotokopi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Pada
tahun 1970, selenium dalam rectifier yang sebagian besar telah digantikan oleh
silikon, namun penggunaannya sebagai fotokonduktor di mesin fotokopi
biasa-kertas telah menjadi aplikasi terkemuka. Selama tahun 1980, aplikasi
fotokonduktor menurun (meskipun masih akhir menggunakan-besar) sebagai mesin
fotokopi semakin banyak menggunakan photoconductors organik yang diproduksi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Saat
ini, penggunaan terbesar selenium seluruh dunia dalam pembuatan gelas, diikuti
dengan menggunakan bahan kimia dan pigmen. menggunakan Electronics, meskipun
sejumlah aplikasi terus, terus menurun. Pada akhir 1990-an, penggunaan selenium
(biasanya dengan bismuth) sebagai aditif untuk kuningan pipa untuk memenuhi
standar lingkungan yang tidak penting menjadi penting. Saat ini, total produksi
dunia selenium terus meningkat sederhana. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
terjadi secara alami dalam beberapa bentuk anorganik, termasuk selenide,
selenate, dan Selenite. Dalam tanah, selenium paling sering terjadi dalam
bentuk larut seperti selenate (analog dengan sulfat), yang tercuci ke sungai
sangat mudah oleh limpasan. Selenium memiliki peran biologis, dan ini ditemukan
dalam senyawa organik seperti dimetil selenide, selenomethionine,
selenocysteine, dan methylselenocysteine. Dalam senyawa selenium memainkan
peran analog dengan belerang. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
ini paling sering dihasilkan dari bijih sulfida selenide di banyak, seperti
tembaga, perak, atau timah. Hal ini diperoleh sebagai hasil sampingan dari
pengolahan bijih ini, dari lumpur anoda kilang tembaga dan lumpur dari ruang
utama tanaman asam sulfat. Lumpur tersebut dapat diproses oleh sejumlah sarana
untuk memperoleh selenium gratis. Di Alam sumber selenium termasuk unsure yang
banyak di temukan, dan selenium yang telah bioconcentrated oleh tanaman
tertentu. sumber antropogenik selenium termasuk pembakaran batubara dan
pertambangan dan peleburan bijih sulfida. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sifat
Fisis dan Sifat Kimia Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
menyerupai sulfur, Selenium juga bisa berupa struktur amorf maupun kristal.
Selenium amorf bisa berwarna merah (bentuk serbuk) atau hitam (dalam bentuk
seperti kaca). Selenium kristal monoklinik berwarna merah tua. Sedangkan
selenium kristal heksagonal, yang merupakan jenis paling stabil, berwarna
abu-abu metalik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
menunjukkan sifat fotovoltaik, yakni mengubah cahaya menjadi listrik, dan sifat
fotokonduktif, yakni menunjukkan penurunan hambatan listrik dengan meningkatnya
cahaya dari luar (menjadi penghantar listrik ketika terpapar cahaya dengan
energi yang cukup).. Di bawah titik cairnya, selenium memiliki sifat
semikonduktor tipe p dan memiliki banyak kegunaan dalam penerapan elektronik .
selenium juga merupakan unsure yang non toksit, namun senyawa selenium lainnya
adalah beracun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Senyawa-Senyawa
Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
dipercaya memiliki enam isotop. 80Se (49.7%) selenium yang paling<span> </span>melimpah adalah 77Se, dengan spin I = 1/2
sangat bermanafaat dalam NMR.<span> </span>Keakuratan
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place> atom
selenium, 78.96±0.03, terbatas pada tempat dua desimal karena perubahan
komposisi isotopnya. Di antara berbagai alotrop selenium, yang disebut<span> </span>dengan selenium merah adalah molekul Se8
dengan struktur mirip mahkota dan melarut dalam CS2. Selenium abu-abu metalik
berstruktur polimer heliks. Selenium hitam, dengan struktur polimer yang rumit,
juga melimpah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Diantara
senyawa-senyawa unsure selenium adalah: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selenide, selenate, selenite,
dimetil selenide, selenomethionine, selenocysteine, dan methylselenocysteine,
tembaga, perak, atau timah. sulfida selenide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo8; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan
dan Bahaya Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
adalah mineral penting yang dibutuhkan oleh tubuh. Mineral ini merupakan bagian
penting dari enzim<span> </span>antioksidan yang akan
melindungi sel tubuh terhadap efek negative yang ditimbulkan dari radikal
bebas.Selenium bekerja sebagai kofaktor untuk enzim yang terlibat dalam
oksidasi asam lemak dan penghancuran asam amino.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tubuh mengembangkan kemampuan
untuk melawan radikal bebas akan menghancurkan sel dan mempunyai kontribusi
terhadap perkembangan berbagai banyak kronik.Karena itu, selenium diduga mampu
untuk menahan laju ketuaan dan perangsang jaringan akibat proses
oksidasi.selain untuk melawan radikal bebas , selenium juga berperan sebagai
system imunitas (kekebalan tubuh) , fungsi kelenjar tiroid yang baik dan
keterlibatan selenium untuk mencegah kanker. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selain
fungsi selenium dalam bidang kesehatan, selenium juga berfungsi dalam bidang
industry yaitu selenium dan senyawanya yang digunakan dalam beberapa perangkat
fotografi, Selenium digunakan dalam xerografi untuk memperbanyak salinan
dokumen, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">surat</st1:city></st1:place>
dan lain-lain. Juga digunakan oleh industri kaca untuk mengawawarnakan kaca dan
untuk membuat kaca dan lapisan email gigi yang berwarna rubi. Juga digunakan
sebagai tinta fotografi dan sebagai bahan tambahan baja tahan karat dan
selenium berfungsi sebagai pistol bluing (solusi cair yang digunakan untuk
membersihkan bagian-bagian logam senjata), plastik, cat, shampoo anti-ketombe,
suplemen vitamin dan mineral, fungisida, dan beberapa jenis kaca. Sebagai
contoh, selenium sulfida digunakan di shampoo anti-ketombe dengan nama dagang
umum Selsun Blue. Selenium juga digunakan untuk menyiapkan obat-obatan dan
sebagai nutrisi suplemen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
adalah salah satu komponen yang sering dipelajari sejak ditemukan pada tahun
1950 sebagai suatu unsur , sampai akhirnya diketahui bahwa selenium memiliki
efek racun pada lingkungan. Selenium juga berbahaya bagi manusia dan hewan<span> </span>jika dimakan dalamjumlah yang melebihi
kebutuhan nutrisi. Kelebihan selenium mengakibatkan endema paru-paru, sakit
perut, penyakit kuning, kerontokan rambut dan kelelahan pada manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo8; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sumber
dan Pembuatan Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Tumbuhan
merupakan sumber utama dari selenium. Sayangnya, kadar selenium yang terdapat
pada tumbuhan seringkali berbeda-beda. Kadar dalam tumbuhan tergantung dari
kadar Selenium dalam tanah dimana mereka tumbuh. Akibatnya, defisiensi selenium
bisa terjadi pada mereka yang hidup di tanah yang sedikit mengandung selenium.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selain
dari tumbuhan, selenium bisa juga kita peroleh dari daging hewan termasuk
makanan laut. Selenium dalam makanan terdapat dalam bentuk seleno methionin dan
selenosistein.Selenium terjadi secara alami dalam beberapa bentuk anorganik,
termasuk selenide, selenate, dan Selenite. Dalam tanah, selenium paling sering
terjadi dalam bentuk larut seperti selenate (analog dengan sulfat), yang
tercuci ke sungai sangat mudah oleh limpasan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
memiliki peran biologis, dan ini ditemukan dalam senyawa organik seperti
dimetil selenide, selenomethionine, selenocysteine, dan methylselenocysteine.
Dalam senyawa selenium memainkan peran analog dengan belerang. Selenium ini
paling sering dihasilkan dari bijih sulfida selenide di banyak, seperti
tembaga, perak, atau timah. Hal ini diperoleh sebagai hasil sampingan dari
pengolahan bijih ini, dari lumpur anoda kilang tembaga dan lumpur dari ruang
utama tanaman asam sulfat. Lumpur tersebut dapat diproses oleh sejumlah sarana
untuk memperoleh selenium gratis. Alam sumber selenium termasuk tanah kaya
selenium tertentu, dan selenium yang telah bioconcentrated oleh tanaman
tertentu. sumber antropogenik selenium termasuk pembakaran batubara dan
pertambangan dan peleburan bijih sulfida. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
ditemukan dalam beberapa mineral yang cukup langka seperti kruksit dan
klausthalit. Beberapa tahun yang lalu, selenium didapatkan dari debu cerobong
asap yang tersisa dari proses bijih tembaga sulfida. Sekarang selenium di
seluruh dunia dihasilkan dari pemurnian kembali logam anoda dari proses
elektrolisis tembaga. Selenium diperoleh dari memanggang endapan hasil
elektrolisis dengan soda atau asam sulfat, atau dengan meleburkan endapan
tersebut dengan soda<span> </span>dan niter
(mineral<span> </span>yang mengandung kalium nitrat).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">BAB
III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PENUTUP<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; mso-list: l6 level4 lfo1; tab-stops: 31.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Simpulan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen atau <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span>
yang sering diketahui sebagai salah satu limbah yang berbahaya dan beracun
merupakan bahan pencemar yang banyak terdapat di alam sebagai suatu unsur
alami. Selain terdapat secara alami di alam, Arsen atau Arsenic juga ditemukan
dalam bentuk limbah buangan dari industri – industri yang mencemari sungai –
sungai yang mengalir sepanjang daerah pemukiman penduduk. Arsenic melebihi ini
nilai dikenal ambang sebagai batas bahan yang pencemar karena dan kandungannya
yang terdapat dalam sungai atau badan air telah ditentukan membahayakan untuk
dikonsumsi makhluk hidup. Selain itu, yang dapat menyebabkan kesakitan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
Selenium
adalah zat padat alami yang banyak tetapi tidak merata dalam kerak bumi. Hal
ini juga umumnya ditemukan di bebatuan dan tanah. Selenium, dalam bentuk murni
abu-abu metalik kristal hitam, sering disebut sebagai unsur selenium atau debu.
Elemental selenium diproduksi secara komersial, terutama sebagai produk
sampingan dari tembaga pemurnian. Selenium tidak sering ditemukan di lingkungan
dalam bentuk mendasar, tetapi biasanya dikombinasikan dengan zat lain.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium
adalah logam, tapi benar-benar tanpa properti metalik. <br />
Karena terdapat dalam fisiologi fenomena yang dikenal sebagai efek oleh
dehydrogenating dimana ion negatif hidrogen (yang dapat dipandang sebagai
sebuah elektron) dibuang dari tubuh, itu mengarah ke asumsi bahwa germanium
mungkin memiliki aplikasi biologis menarik juga. Mengacu pada tindakan
germanium organik dalam menangkap dan mengkombinasikan dengan ion hidrogen yang
telah terkumpul di dalam tubuh untuk dihilangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">DAFTRA PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Krull, I. S. (ed). (1991). Journal of
Chromatography Library_volume 47 Trace Metal Analysis and Speciation. 655
Avenue of the Americas: Elsevier Science Publishing Company,inc. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Mc Graw-Hill. (1994). Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology,
Third Edition. New York: Mc Graw Hill, inc.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Mohsin, Y. (2006). “Arsen”. http://chem-is-try.org/. (diakses pada
Minggu, 10 Oktober 2010). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Sunardi. (2006). 116 UNSUR KIMIA Deskripsi dan Pemanfaatannya. Bandung:
CV. Yrama Widya.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
________. “Sumber dan Terjadinya Arsen di Lingkungan (SUKAR)”
http://www.ekologi.litbang.depkes.go.id/data/vol%202/Sukar2_2.pdf (diakses pada
Sabtu, 30 Oktober 2010).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
________. “Arsenic: Isolation”. http://www.webelements.com/arsenic/
(diakses pada Minggu, 31 Oktober 2010).<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-19129750256530382912012-10-01T07:39:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:39:40.942-07:00makalah germanium<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">BAB
I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 28.35pt 31.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembangunan diberbagai bidang terutama bidang
industri timbul berbagai masalah baru, hal ini terkait dengan pencemaran
lingkungan oleh limbah buangan dari industri – industri yang semakin bertambah
dari waktu ke waktu. Hal ini akan sangat berpengaruh pada kesehatan lingkungan.
Pencemaran ini terjadi pada perairan, udara dan tanah sebagai akibat dari
adanya berbagai aktivitas di atas. Pertumbuhan <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">kota</st1:city></st1:place> dengan perkembangan timbulnya industry,
kesadaran yang dan mengikutinya pengertian telah mendorong adanya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembuangan bahan buangan kimia maupun bahan pencemar
lainnya ke dalam air akan mempengaruhi kehidupan dalam air. Pada air sungai
yang telah tercemar terjadi penurunan kualitas air dan tentunya akan sangat
membahayakan bila dikonsumsi maupun digunakan untuk bidang pertanian.
Pencemaran yang diakibatkan oleh logam – logam berat akan memberikan pengaruh
yang negative terhadap kesehatan. Beberapa macam logam berat sangat beracun
terhadap tanaman, hewan, dan manusia. Logam – logam tersebut bersifat tahan
lama dalam waktu yang lama pula, bahkan ada juga logam beracun yang tidak dapat
dikenali baik dari warna maupun baunya. seperti <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span>
dan berbagai senyawanya. Hal ini tentunya sangat membahayakan karena sebagian
logam tersebut telah dipergunakan secara luas sebagai pestisida dan disebarkan
ke tata lingkungan sebagai pembuangan industry yang tidak diketahui. Jika hal
ini dibiarkan tentunya akan sangat merugikan masyarakat karena bisa menyebabkan
terjadinya keracunan kematian. Jenis limbah logam berat yang akan dibahas dalam
makalah ini adalah Arsen (As). Arsen atau <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span>
yang sering diketahui sebagai salah satu limbah yang berbahaya dan beracun
merupakan bahan pencemar yang banyak terdapat di alam sebagai suatu unsur
alami. Selain terdapat secara alami di alam, Arsen atau Arsenic juga ditemukan
dalam bentuk limbah buangan dari industri – industri yang mencemari sungai –
sungai yang mengalir sepanjang daerah pemukiman penduduk. Arsenic melebihi ini
nilai dikenal ambang sebagai batas bahan yang pencemar karena dan kandungannya
yang terdapat dalam sungai atau badan air telah ditentukan membahayakan untuk
dikonsumsi makhluk hidup. Selain itu, yang dapat menyebabkan kesakitan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
Persenyawaan
arsenik pun dikenal sangat beracun dan apabila dikonsumsi, <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span> ini dapat terakumulasi. Karena sifatnya yang
beracun, arsenic ini dapat membahayakan makhluk hidup terutama manusia sebab
dapat menimbulkan berbagai penyakit dalam tubuh bahkan kematian. Kasus
keracunan yang disebabkan oleh arsen ini terutama dapat ditemukan di <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
Keracunan arsenic yang terjadi di <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region></st1:place> tersebut disebabkan
karena masyarakat mengkonsumsi air yang telah terkontaminasi oleh arsen dari
sumur yang dibuat Pemeritah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan air bersih. Hal ini tentunya
perlu menjadi pelajaran bagi Pemerintah sebelum membuat kebijakan maupun
keputusan yang berwawasan lingkungan, sebab jika salah dalam mengambil
kebijakan dan tindakan maka akan menimbulkan kerugian bagi mayarakat</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
Selenium
adalah zat padat alami yang banyak tetapi tidak merata dalam kerak bumi. Hal
ini juga umumnya ditemukan di bebatuan dan tanah. Selenium, dalam bentuk murni
abu-abu metalik kristal hitam, sering disebut sebagai unsur selenium atau debu.
Elemental selenium diproduksi secara komersial, terutama sebagai produk
sampingan dari tembaga pemurnian. Selenium tidak sering ditemukan di lingkungan
dalam bentuk mendasar, tetapi biasanya dikombinasikan dengan zat lain.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Sebagian besar selenium dalam batuan
dikombinasikan dengan mineral sulfida atau dengan perak, tembaga, timah, nikel,
dan mineral. Selenium juga menggabung dengan oksigen untuk membentuk beberapa
zat-zat yang tidak berwarna putih atau kristal. Selenium dan senyawa yang
digunakan dalam beberapa perangkat fotografi, pistol bluing (solusi cair yang
digunakan untuk membersihkan bagian-bagian logam senjata), plastik, cat,
shampoo anti-ketombe, suplemen vitamin dan mineral, fungisida, dan beberapa
jenis kaca. Sebagai contoh, selenium sulfida digunakan di shampoo anti-ketombe
dengan nama dagang umum Selsun Blue. Selenium juga digunakan untuk menyiapkan
obat-obatan dan sebagai nutrisi suplemen pakan untuk unggas dan ternak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selenium terjadi secara alami di
lingkungan. Sebagai salah satu elemen, selenium tidak dapat diciptakan atau
dihancurkan, meskipun selenium dapat berubah bentuk dalam lingkungan. Pelapukan
batuan dan tanah dapat mengakibatkan rendahnya tingkat selenium dalam air, yang
dapat diambil oleh tanaman. Cuaca juga mengeluarkan selenium ke udara pada debu
halus seperti partikel. Letusan gunung berapi dapat melepaskan selenium di
udara. Selenium biasanya memasuki udara dari pembakaran batubara atau minyak.
Selenium yang mungkin ada dalam mengkombinasikan bahan bakar fosil dengan
oksigen ketika dibakar, yang kemudian bereaksi dengan air untuk membentuk
senyawa yang larut selenium. <br />
Partikel udara selenium, seperti dalam abu, dapat menetap di tanah atau air
permukaan. Pembuangan selenium dalam produk dan limbah komersial juga dapat
meningkatkan jumlah selenium dalam tanah. Bentuk dan nasib selenium dalam tanah
sangat tergantung pada keasaman lingkungan dan interaksi dengan oksigen. Dalam
ketiadaan oksigen ketika tanah asam, jumlah selenium yang dapat memasukkan
tanaman dan organisme harus rendah. Dengan demikian, ada kemungkinan
peningkatan paparan terhadap senyawa ini. Selenium dapat memasukkan air
permukaan di perairan saluran irigasi. Beberapa bukti menunjukkan bahwa
selenium dapat diambil dalam jaringan organisme perairan dan kemungkinan
peningkatan konsentrasi sebagai selenium dilewatkan melalui rantai makanan. <br />
Orang terpapar kadar rendah selenium setiap hari melalui makanan, air, dan
udara. Selenium juga merupakan elemen esensial bagi manusia dan hewan. Namun,
selenium dapat berbahaya bila diambil secara teratur dalam jumlah yang lebih tinggi
daripada yang dibutuhkan untuk kesehatan yang baik. Sebagian besar orang-orang
mendapatkan asupan selenium dari makanan, dan untuk tingkat yang lebih rendah,
dari air intake. Selenium yang berkadar rendah juga dapat ditemukan dalam air
minum. Orang-orang juga mungkin akan terkena selenium dari sumber-sumber
industri. Manusia biasanya tidak terkena selenium dalam jumlah besar di udara.
Pekerjaan di mana manusia dapat terpapar selenium di udara adalah industri
logam, selenium-proses pemulihan, cat manufaktur, dan perdagangan khusus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium
adalah logam, tapi benar-benar tanpa properti metalik. <br />
Karena terdapat dalam fisiologi fenomena yang dikenal sebagai efek oleh
dehydrogenating dimana ion negatif hidrogen (yang dapat dipandang sebagai
sebuah elektron) dibuang dari tubuh, itu mengarah ke asumsi bahwa germanium
mungkin memiliki aplikasi biologis menarik juga. Mengacu pada tindakan
germanium organik dalam menangkap dan mengkombinasikan dengan ion hidrogen yang
telah terkumpul di dalam tubuh untuk dihilangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Air <st1:city w:st="on">Lourdes</st1:city>: di Pyrenees di perbatasan Prancis Spanyol, ada
sebuah desa kecil bernama <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lourdes</st1:city></st1:place>
dengan jumlah penduduk sekitar 10.000. Sejauh ini banyak orang-orang
datang terdiri oleh sakit yang mencari penyembuhan penyakit dengan
bantuan air mengalir keluar dari batu yang dibangun katedral. Air ini
dianalisis dan ditemukan bahwa beberapa "keajaiban air" mengandung
jumlah yang relatif tinggi dari germanium. Harus dikatakan bahwa saya tidak
memiliki informasi mengenai apa senyawa lain yang terkandung dalam air <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lourdes</st1:city></st1:place> tetapi jika
dibandingkan dengan perairan lain jumlah germanium jauh lebih besar.<br />
Germanium dapat menyembuhkan penyakit dengan mendorong tubuh sebagai
kekuatan penyembuhan alami. Dengan meningkatkan aliran oksigen, germanium
merangsang laten kekuatan penyembuhan alami yang ada dalam tubuh manusia,
sehingga menghasilkan yang sangat efektif mengobati penyakit apapun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apakah
ada hubungan erat antara tindakan germanium dan proses penyembuhan alami dalam
tubuh. Dalam kasus-kasus klinis juga, germanium telah sangat efektif
dalam pengobatan sejumlah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh ketidakmampuan
adrenalin, termasuk pembesaran kelenjar prostat, kanker payudara dan kanker
rahim, gondok dan mvoma rahim, dll. Germanium dapat meningkatkan jumlah oksigen
diangkut oleh hemoglobin dalam sel darah merah. Pasokan oksigen ke sel-sel
jaringan dengan demikian meningkat. mengakibatkan aktivitas sel yang lebih
besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span><b>Rumusan
Masalah<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana sejarah penemuan Arsen,
germanium dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apa saja sifat fisis dan kimia
arsen, germanium dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana kelimpahan unsur arsen,
germanium dan selenium dialam?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apa saja senyawa arsen, germanium
dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Apa saja kegunaan dan bahaya
unsure arsen, germanium dan arsenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>f.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana proses pembuatan arsen,
germanium dan selenium?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>g.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana siklus unsur-unsur
diatas?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 28.35pt 31.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tujuan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui sejarah penemuan
arsen, germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui sifat fisis dan kimia
arsen,germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui senyawa
arsen,germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui kegunaan dan bahaya
arsen, germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l6 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mengetahui pembuatan arsen,
germanium dan selenium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">BAB
II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">GERMANIUM,
ARSEN, dan SELENIUM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sejarah Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Keberadaan
unsur germanium telah ditemukan sekitar 100 tahun yang lalu oleh ahli kimia
Rusia, Mendeleev Omitri.Sementara pada tahun 1886, seorang kimiawan Jerman,
Clemens Winkler, membuat analisis kimia bijih argyrodite, melihat pada
penyelesaian analisisnya bahwa jumlah semua bahan tidak menambahkan ke jumlah
sebelumnya. Dalam upaya untuk menemukan substansi yang hilang, ia mengembangkan
dan bereksperimen dengan beberapa tes sampai akhirnya ia berhasil mengisolasi
itu. Dalam analisis berikutnya ia menemukan bahwa itu cocok deskripsi dari
elemen Mendeleev sebelumnya disebut "ekasilicon." Winkler memutuskan
untuk memberi nama unsur baru germanium, sebagai penghormatan kepada tanah
airnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sifat Fisis dan Sifat Kimia
Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium adalah
suatu unsur kimia dalam tabel periodik yang memiliki lambang unsur (Ge) dan
nomor atom 32. Unsur ini logam yang putih keabu-abuan, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place> atomnya 72.64 g/mol. Dalam bentuknya
yang murni, germanium berbentuk kristal dan rapuh. Germanium merupakan bahan
semikonduktor yang penting. Tehnik pengilangan-zona (<i>zone-refining
techniques</i>) memproduksi germanium kristal untuk semikonduktor dengan
kemurnian yang sangat tinggi. ciri-ciri fisik dan ciri-ciri atom germanium
adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-ciri
Fisik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Fasa<span> </span><span> </span>:
Padat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Jenis<span> </span>: 5.323 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> jenis cair pada titik lebur<span> </span>: 5.60 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik lebur<span> </span>:
1211.40 K<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik Didih<span> </span>: 3106
K<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kalor peleburan<span> </span>: 36.94
kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kalor penguapan<span> </span>: 334 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-ciri
Atom<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bilangan Oksidasi<span> </span>: 4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Elektronegativitas<span> </span>: 2.01 (skala
pauling)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Energy ionisasi<span> </span>: ke-1 762
kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>ke-2 1537.5 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>ke-3
3302.1 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">jari-jari atom<span> </span>: 125 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">jari-jari kovalen<span> </span>: 122 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelimpahan Germanium di Alam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Logam ini dapat
ditemukan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Argirodite, sulfide germanium dan
perak<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanite, yang mengandung 8%
unsure ini<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Biji seng<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Batu bara<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 71.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 71.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mineral-mineral lainnya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium murni
ditemukan dalam bentuk yang keras, berkilauan, berwarna putih keabu-abuan, tapi
merupakan metalloid yang rapuh. Germanium stabil di udara dan air pada keadaan
yang normal, dan sukar bereaksi dengan alkali dan asam, kecuali dengan asam nitrat.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Senyawa-Senyawa Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium tidak larut
dalam asam dan basa encer, tetapi larut perlahan dalam asam sulfat pekat dan
bereaksi keras dengan alkali cair untuk menghasilkan germinates (</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span>
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">2-. Germanium terjadi terutama di bilangan oksidasi
+4, meskipun banyak senyawa yang dikenal dengan keadaan oksidasi +2. Oksidasi
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Dua germanium oksida
dikenal yaitu Germanium dioksida </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>(<st1:place w:st="on">Germania</st1:place>) dan monoksida germanium GEO. Dioksida ini </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE </span><span style='position:relative;
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wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr><m:t>2</m:t></m:r></m:sub></m:sSub><m:r><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr><m:t> </m:t></m:r></m:oMath></m:oMathPara></w:p><w:sectPr wsp:rsidR="00000000"><w:pgSz w:w="12240" w:h="15840"/><w:pgMar w:top="1440" w:right="1440" w:bottom="1440" w:left="1440" w:header="720" w:footer="720" w:gutter="0"/><w:cols w:space="720"/></w:sectPr></w:body></w:wordDocument>">
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style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="mso-text-raise: -3.0pt; position: relative; top: 3.0pt;"><v:shape equationxml="<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"?>
<?mso-application progid="Word.Document"?>
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wsp:val="00D83AF1"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00D87320"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00E05D17"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00E45FE9"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00E671D1"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00ED4637"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00ED7F62"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00F403DD"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00F4449B"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00F733F4"/><wsp:rsid wsp:val="00FE06E1"/></wsp:rsids></w:docPr><w:body><w:p wsp:rsidR="00000000" wsp:rsidRDefault="00C67714"><m:oMathPara><m:oMath><m:sSub><m:sSubPr><m:ctrlPr><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr></m:ctrlPr></m:sSubPr><m:e><m:r><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr><m:t>GEO</m:t></m:r></m:e><m:sub><m:r><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr><m:t>2</m:t></m:r></m:sub></m:sSub><m:r><w:rPr><w:rFonts w:ascii="Cambria Math" w:h-ansi="Cambria Math"/><wx:font wx:val="Cambria Math"/><w:i/></w:rPr><m:t> </m:t></m:r></m:oMath></m:oMathPara></w:p><w:sectPr wsp:rsidR="00000000"><w:pgSz w:w="12240" w:h="15840"/><w:pgMar w:top="1440" w:right="1440" w:bottom="1440" w:left="1440" w:header="720" w:footer="720" w:gutter="0"/><w:cols w:space="720"/></w:sectPr></w:body></w:wordDocument>" id="_x0000_i1030" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 30.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">dapat diperoleh dengan pemanggangan sulfide germanium
</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>dengan logam
Ge. Senyawa biner lainnya, kalkogen juga dikenal seperti disulpida </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE </span><span style='position:relative;
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style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="mso-text-raise: -3.0pt; position: relative; top: 3.0pt;"><v:shape equationxml="<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"?>
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style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
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endapan putih ketika hydrogen sulfide dilewatkan melalui larutan asam kuat yang
mengandung Ge (IV). Disulfide ini lumayan larut dalam air dan dalam larutan
alkali kaustik atau sulfida basa. Tetapi tidak larut dalam air asam. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium klorida </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
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sebagai cairan berwarna merah, mendidih pada 83º C dengan pemanasan logam
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style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>tetra metal
germane.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan dan Bahaya Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 40.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ketika germanium didoping dengan arsenik, galium
atau unsur-unsur lainnya, ia digunakan sebagai transistor dalam banyak barang
elektronik. Kegunaan umum germanium adalah sebagai bahan semikonduktor.
Kegunaan lain unsur ini adalah sebagai bahan pencampur logam, sebagai fosfor di
bola lampu pijar dan sebagai katalis. Germanium dan germanium oksida tembus
cahaya sinar infra merah dan digunakan dalam spekstroskopi infra mera dan
barang-baran optik lainnya, termasuk pendeteksi infra merah yang sensitif.
Index refraksi yang tinggi dan sifat dispersi oksidanya telah membuat germanium
sangat berguna sebagai lensa kamera <i>wide-angle</i> dan<i> microscope
objectives</i>. Bidang studi kimia organogermanium berkembang menjadi bidang
yang penting. Beberapa senyawa germanium memiliki tingkat keracunan yang rendah
untuk mamalia, tetapi memiliki keaktifan terhadap beberap jenis bakteria,
sehingga membuat unsur ini sangat berguna sebagai agen kemoterapi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Germanium transistor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Germanium
dipandang sebagai pengganti potensial untuk silicon pada chip mini. Kegunaan
lain dalam elektronika termasuk posfor di lampu neon. Germanium transistor
masih digunakan di beberapa pedal efek oleh musisi yang ingin memproduksi
karakter nada khas. Germanium dioksida juga digunakan dalam katalis untuk
polimerisasi dalam produksi polyethylene terephtalate.<span> </span>Selain itu juga germanium telah mendapatkan
popularitas dalam beberapa tahun terakhir terkenal karena kemempuannya untuk
meningkatkan fungsi system kekebalan tubuh pada pasien kanker. Ini tersedia di
Amerika Serikat sebagai suplemen makanan dalam bentuk kapsul, oral atau tablet,
dan juga telah ditemukan sebagai larutan injeksi. Sebelumnya bentuk anorganik,
khususnya garam sitrat-laktat, menyebabkan sejumlah kasus disfungsi ginjal,
steatosis hati<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Germanium
anorganik mampu melindungi tubuh dari pertumbuhan tumor dan kanker ganas dengan
jalan memperkuat sistem imun. Germanium dibutuhkan oleh tubuh, dalam satu hari
minimal 1 mg. Seperti halnya selenium, germanium juga termasuk ke dalam
golongan trace mineral.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Germanium
organik melindungi diri dari akumulasi amyloid, suatu produk oksidatif radikal
bebas (berdasarkan riset pada tikus). Kelebihan amyloid akan menyebabkan
amyloidosis, yaitu suatu penyakit yang diakibatkan ketidakseimbangan dalam
proses pemecahan protein yang menyebabkan terakumulasinya amyloid. Amyloidosis
diketahui berhubungan dengan penyakit inflammatori kronis, kelainan sel plasma,
deposisi amyloid di organ neuroendokrin, dan defisiensi kongenital enzim
(terutama enzim yang berperan dalam penguraian prekursor amyloid). Selain itu,
germanium organik juga melindungi sistein (suatu asam amino sulfhidril) dari
oksidasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 87.6pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level3 lfo1; mso-text-indent-alt: -17.0pt; tab-stops: list 87.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -87.6pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bahaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bahaya fisik yang dapat ditimbulkanoleh germanium,
dilihat dari bentuk gasnya, yang lebih berat dari pada udara sehingga dapat
berpindah dengan cepat sepanjang permukaan bumi. Selain itu, sebagi salah satu
logam berat, germanium juga memiliki dampak negatif apabila terakumulasi dalam
sistem perairan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembuatan Germanium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Unsur ini diambil secara komersil
dari debu-debu pabrik pengolahan bijih-bijih seng, dan sebagai produk sampingan
beberapa pembakaran batubara. Germanium dapat dipisahkan dari logam-logam
lainnya dengan cara distilasi fraksi tetrakloridanya yang sangat reaktif.
Tehnik ini dapat memproduksi germanium dengan kemurnian yang tinggi</span>.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar cara
pengolahan germanium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape alt="our products" id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1051" style="height: 87.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 142.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 48.75pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh
product yang dihasilkan oleh germanium.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sejarah
Arsen <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
berasal dari kata arsenicum (bahasa Latin) dan kata arsenicon (bahasa Yunani)
yang artinya: orpiment kuning; dan laki-laki karena pada masa itu logam
dipercaya mempunyai jenis kelamin. Arsen juga diambil dari bahasa Arab yaitu
Az-zernikh yang artinya: orpiment dari <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Persia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (zerni-zar). Orpiment
sendiri artinya adalah mineral berwarna kuning cerah dengan komposisi arsenik
sulfida (As2S3). Arsen dilambangkan dengan As.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
dikenal sejak zaman prasejarah sehingga penemu arsen tidak diketahui secara
pasti. Dalam perkembangan sejarah, arsen dikenal sebagai racun pembunuh paling
populer. Arsen terkenal sebagai Raja Racun dan Racunnya Para Raja karena
kebanyakan korban arsen adalah para penguasa, bangsawan atau tuan tanah. Di
masa pemerintahan Ratu Victoria Inggris kegunaan arsen mengalami pergeseran.
Arsen dicampurkan dalam air cuka atau air kapur lalu diminum oleh para wanita
karena dipercaya mampu mempercantik kulit. Pada tahun 1250, Albertus Magnus
dipercaya sebagai orang pertama yang menemukan bagaimana cara mengisolasi
arsen, lalu pada tahun 1649 Johan Schroeder dikabarkan mampu membuat dan mempersiapkan
unsur ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sifat
Fisis dan Sifat Kimia Arsen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Logam
Arsen bewarna abu-abu, sangat rapuh, kristal dan semi-metal benda padat. Ia
berubah warna dalam udara, dan ketika dipanaskan teroksida sangat cepat menjadi
arsen oksida dengan bau bawang. Arsen dan senyawa-senyawanya sangat beracun. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Arsen mempunyai nomor atom 33
dengan <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place>
atom sebesar 74,9216 sma dan jari-jari atomnya 1,39Å. Volume atomnya adalah
13,10 cm3/mol. Strukutur atomnya berbentuk rombohedral. Arsen termasuk unsur
golonngan metaloid, mempunyai titik didih dan titik lebur tinggi, yaitu 867 K
dan 1090 K. Arsen mempunyai massa jenis 5,78 gram/cm3, kapasitas panas 0,33
j/gK, potensial ionisasi 9,81 volt, dan elektronegativitas sebesar 2,18. Harga
entalpi pembentukan dan penguapannya adalah 27,7 kJ/mol dan 32,4 kJ/mol.
Ciri-ciri fisik dan ciri-ciri atom arsen adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-Ciri Fisik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Fase <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>Solid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> jenis (sekitar suhu kamar) <span> </span>:<span>
</span>5,727 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massa</span></st1:city></st1:place><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> jenis cair pada titik lebur <span> </span>:<span>
</span>5,22 g/cm³<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik lebur <span> </span>:<span> </span>1090 K (817 °C, 1503 °F)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Titik didih <span> </span>:<span> </span>887 K (614 °C, 1137 °F)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ciri-Ciri Atom<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bilangan oksidasi <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>±3, 5 (oksida
asam lemah)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Elektronegativitas <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>2,18 (skala
Pauling)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Energi ionisasi <span> </span>:<span> </span>ke-1<span>
</span>947,0 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>:<span> </span>ke-2<span> </span>1798
kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span dir="RTL"></span><span dir="RTL" lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span dir="RTL"></span>:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>:<span> </span>ke-3<span>
</span>2735 kJ/mol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jari-jari atom <span> </span><span> </span>:<span>
</span>115 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jari-jari atom (terhitung) <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>114 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jari-jari kovalen <span> </span><span> </span>:<span> </span>119 pm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelimpahan
Arsen di Alam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
merupakan unsur yang melimpah secara alami di alam. Arsen jarang ditemukan
dalam bentuk unsur karena arsen biasanya membentuk berbagai macam senyawa
kompleks, bisa berupa trivalen (As+3) atau pentavalen (As+5). Pada umumnya,
As+3 berupa As-anorganik, seperti senyawa As-pentoksida, asam arsenat,
Pb-arsenat, dan Ca-arsenat. As organik bisa berupa As+3, maupun As+5
diantaranya asam arsanilat atau bentuk metilasi. Arsen juga terdapat di dalam
tubuh mahluk hidup, baik hewan maupun tanaman dan bergabung dengan hidrogen
atau karbon membentuk As-organik. Kerang dikenal sebagai hewan dengan kadar
arsen organik tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
biasa ditemukan di dalam kerak bumi yaitu pada batuan sedimen dan beku yang
terdistribusi sebagai mineral. Kadar As tertinggi dalam bentuk arsenida dari
timah hitam, perak dan bentuk sulfida dari emas. Mineral lain yang mengandung
arsen adalah arsenopirit (FeAsS), realgar (As4S4), dan orpiment (As2S3).
Kandungan arsen di bumi antara 1,5-2 mg/kg (NAS, 1977). Tanah yang tidak
terkontaminasi arsen ditemukan mengandung kadar As antara 0,240 mg/kg, sedang
yang terkontaminasi kadarnya lebih dari 550 mg/kg (Walsh & Keeney, 1975).
Keberadaan arsen dalam tanah mampu menular pada tanaman. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Ada</st1:city></st1:place> tidaknya arsen dalam tanaman digunakan
sebagai indikator kandungan arsen dalam tanah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
juga terdapat dalam air dan udara dalam bentuk organik dan anorganik. Crecelius
(1974) menunjukkan bahwa 35% arsen anorganik terlarut dalam air hujan. Arsen
mampu mencemari air permukaan dengan kandungan yang bervariasi di setiap daerah
tercemar, yaitu berkisar 1 µg/l. Selain itu As juga terlarut dalam air sumur
dalam. Kadar arsen tinggi juga ditemukan pada air di lokasi di mana terdapat
aktivitas panas bumi (geothermal).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Senyawa-Senyawa
Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Bentuk
arsen yang terkenal adalah As2O3 arsen trioksida atau warangan. Warangan ini
bentuknya berupa bubuk berwarna putih yang larut dalam air. Bentuk lainnya
adalah bubuk kuning As2S3 dan bubuk merah As4S4. Keduanya digunakan sebagai
bahan cat, namun karena toksik akhirnya mereka tidak dipakai lagi. Adapun
bentuk gasnya, yang juga beracun adalah arsin As2H3. Senyawa Arsen lainnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo5; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Asam arsenat (H3AsO4) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo5; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Asam arsenit (H3AsO3)<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo5; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kadmium arsenida (Cd3As2) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo5; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Galium arsenida (GaAs) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo5; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Timbal biarsenat (PbHAsO4 )<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.25pt; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan
dan Bahaya Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 76.55pt; mso-list: l1 level4 lfo5; mso-text-indent-alt: -28.55pt; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -76.55pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
digunakan untuk melapisi logam dan senjata yang terbuat dari perunggu. Hal ini
menyebabkan senjata tersebut mempunyai daya bunuh tinggi. Di Indonesia, arsen
digunakan untuk mencuci keris oleh orang-orang zaman dulu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bidang
Kedokteran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
berperan dalam pembuatan berbagai obat, seperti: arsphenamine sebagai obat
penyakit sifilis; arsenat trioksida untuk terapi kanker; fowlers solution untuk
pengobatan penyakit psoriasis. Arsen juga digunakan sebagai komponen pengobatan
penyakit yang disebabkan oleh parasit dan pembuatan obat doping (doping agent).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bidang
pertaniaan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
sebagai bahan pembuatan pestisida untuk meracuni tikus telah dilarang
dikarenakan munculnya gangguan kesehatan manusia akibat terpapar arsen dalam
proses produksi <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 60.1pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bidang
Industri<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Dalam
bidang industri arsen berguna sebagai pewarna, pengawet kayu, bahan pembuatan
bronzing dan senjata. Arsen juga digunakan sebagai bahan campuran pewarna cat
rambut, mainan anak, pembungkus makanan, pewarna baju, serta berbagai jenis
campuran logam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 76.55pt; mso-list: l1 level4 lfo5; mso-text-indent-alt: -22.55pt; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 60.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -76.55pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Bahaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen
bersifat toksik. Efek yang ditimbulkan bervariasi dari pusing hingga kematian
tergantung kadar arsen yang masuk dalam tubuh. Keberadaan arsen dalam jumlah
banyak dalam tubuh dapat menimbulkan keracunan. Bentuknya yang berupa bubuk,
tidak berasa dan tidak berbau membuat arsen tidak mudah dikenali saat
dicampurkan ke dalam makanan. Orang yang keracunan arsen akan menderita mual
dan muntah hebat, rasa nyeri pada organ dalam secara tiba-tiba, dehidrasi akut
dan lemas. Arsenic Pentoxide ( As205 ) yang terkandung dalam Udang bila
bereaksi dengan Vitamin C dalam perut dapat berubah menjadi Arsenic Trioxide (
As203 ) yang sangat beracun. Mengakibatkan hati, Jantung, ginjal, pembuluh
darah rusak, usus keluar darah, pembuluh darah melebar hingga menyebabkan
kematian yang mengerikan dengan kelima panca indra keluar darah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembuatan
Arsen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Seperti
yang telah disebutkan, arsen dapat dibuat melalui isolasi. Namun, proses
isolasi yang dilakukan di dalam laboratorium tidak terlalu diperlukan karena
pada realitanya arsen terdapat di alam dalam jumlah melimpah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Dalam
proses isolasi, arsen dibuat pada skala industri dengan pemanasan mineral yang
tepat dan sesuai, tanpa adanya udara dalam proses tersebut. Hasilnya, arsen
akan dikeluarkan dalam kondisi kental terpisah dari senyawaan asalnya sebagai
zat padat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Berikut ini persamaan reaksi yang
terjadi pada proses isolasi arsen yang dibuat dari senyawa FeAsS dan dipanaskan
pada suhu 700°C:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">FeAsS (s) → <st1:place w:st="on">FeS</st1:place>
(s) + As(g) → As(s)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Siklus
Arsenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Pada
gambar dibawah ini dapat dilihat bagaimana terjadinya siklus beogeokimia
arsenik dalam udara, air dan sedimen.Arsen yang dilepaskan ke udara saat
memproduksi energi adalah 0,470, pada proses peleburan atau penambangan adalah
0,370, pada proses industri adalah 0,0530 dan akibat pembuangan atau limbah
adalah 0,003.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Sedimen
mengandung senyawa arsenat yang sebagian dapat larut dalam air kemudian diserap
kembali oleh sedimen. Dengan bantuan bakteri terdekomposisi menjadi senyawa
arsenit. Selanjutnya arsenit dirubah menjadi senyawa asam metil arsenit.
Sebagian asam metil arsenit larut dalam air dan sebagian lainnya dirubah oleh
bakteri menjadi asam dimetilarsenit. Asam dimetilarsenit dalam air dirubah
menjadi trimetilarsenit dan dimetilarsin. Di udara asam trimetilarsenit
bereaksi dengan dimetilarsin menghasilkan senyawa asam dimetilarsenit yang
dapat terserap kembali kedalam sedimen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1052" style="height: 195.75pt; width: 302.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:\Users\ivonk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Level
paparan arsen dalam lingkungan sangat bervariasiDalam Udara, level paparan oleh
arsen yang paling rendah adalah di daerah terpencil dan pedesaan sedangkan
level tertinggi adalah di daerah yang yang dekat dengan kawasan industri. Dalam
air, level paling rendah terdapat dalam air laut kemudian sungai, danau dan
yang paling tinggi ditemukan dalam air bawah tanah yang mengandung batuan
vulkanik atau kaya dengan mineral yang terdeposit. Dalam tanah dan sedimen,
level paparan arsen akan meningkat apabila ada kontaminasi arsenik yang
bersumber dari manusia atau sumber alamiah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 28.35pt left 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo8; tab-stops: 49.5pt list 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.35pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sejarah
Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
ditemukan pada tahun 1817 oleh Jöns Jakob Berzelius, yang menemukan elemen yang
terkait dengan telurium (dinamai Bumi). Selenium ditemukan sebagai produk
sampingan dari produksi asam sulfat.<span>
</span>Pada tahun 1954, dari fungsi biologis spesifik selenium ditemukan pada
mikroorganisme.<span> </span>Esensial ini bagi
kehidupan mamalia ditemukan pada tahun 1957.<span>
</span>Pada 1970-an, itu ditunjukkan untuk adanya enzim. Hal ini diikuti oleh
penemuan selenocysteine di protein. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selama
tahun 1980-an, itu menunjukkan bahwa selenocysteine dikode oleh kodon TGA.
Mekanisme recoding yang bekerja pada bakteri bagian luar dan kemudian pada
mamalia (lihat elemen SECIS). Pertumbuhan konsumsi selenium secara historis
didorong oleh perkembangan stabil penggunaan baru, termasuk aplikasi dalam
peracikan karet, baja paduan, dan selenium rectifier. Selenium juga merupakan
material penting dalam drum printer laser dan mesin fotokopi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Pada
tahun 1970, selenium dalam rectifier yang sebagian besar telah digantikan oleh
silikon, namun penggunaannya sebagai fotokonduktor di mesin fotokopi
biasa-kertas telah menjadi aplikasi terkemuka. Selama tahun 1980, aplikasi
fotokonduktor menurun (meskipun masih akhir menggunakan-besar) sebagai mesin
fotokopi semakin banyak menggunakan photoconductors organik yang diproduksi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Saat
ini, penggunaan terbesar selenium seluruh dunia dalam pembuatan gelas, diikuti
dengan menggunakan bahan kimia dan pigmen. menggunakan Electronics, meskipun
sejumlah aplikasi terus, terus menurun. Pada akhir 1990-an, penggunaan selenium
(biasanya dengan bismuth) sebagai aditif untuk kuningan pipa untuk memenuhi
standar lingkungan yang tidak penting menjadi penting. Saat ini, total produksi
dunia selenium terus meningkat sederhana. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
terjadi secara alami dalam beberapa bentuk anorganik, termasuk selenide,
selenate, dan Selenite. Dalam tanah, selenium paling sering terjadi dalam
bentuk larut seperti selenate (analog dengan sulfat), yang tercuci ke sungai
sangat mudah oleh limpasan. Selenium memiliki peran biologis, dan ini ditemukan
dalam senyawa organik seperti dimetil selenide, selenomethionine,
selenocysteine, dan methylselenocysteine. Dalam senyawa selenium memainkan
peran analog dengan belerang. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
ini paling sering dihasilkan dari bijih sulfida selenide di banyak, seperti
tembaga, perak, atau timah. Hal ini diperoleh sebagai hasil sampingan dari
pengolahan bijih ini, dari lumpur anoda kilang tembaga dan lumpur dari ruang
utama tanaman asam sulfat. Lumpur tersebut dapat diproses oleh sejumlah sarana
untuk memperoleh selenium gratis. Di Alam sumber selenium termasuk unsure yang
banyak di temukan, dan selenium yang telah bioconcentrated oleh tanaman
tertentu. sumber antropogenik selenium termasuk pembakaran batubara dan
pertambangan dan peleburan bijih sulfida. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sifat
Fisis dan Sifat Kimia Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
menyerupai sulfur, Selenium juga bisa berupa struktur amorf maupun kristal.
Selenium amorf bisa berwarna merah (bentuk serbuk) atau hitam (dalam bentuk
seperti kaca). Selenium kristal monoklinik berwarna merah tua. Sedangkan
selenium kristal heksagonal, yang merupakan jenis paling stabil, berwarna
abu-abu metalik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
menunjukkan sifat fotovoltaik, yakni mengubah cahaya menjadi listrik, dan sifat
fotokonduktif, yakni menunjukkan penurunan hambatan listrik dengan meningkatnya
cahaya dari luar (menjadi penghantar listrik ketika terpapar cahaya dengan
energi yang cukup).. Di bawah titik cairnya, selenium memiliki sifat
semikonduktor tipe p dan memiliki banyak kegunaan dalam penerapan elektronik .
selenium juga merupakan unsure yang non toksit, namun senyawa selenium lainnya
adalah beracun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Senyawa-Senyawa
Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
dipercaya memiliki enam isotop. 80Se (49.7%) selenium yang paling<span> </span>melimpah adalah 77Se, dengan spin I = 1/2
sangat bermanafaat dalam NMR.<span> </span>Keakuratan
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place> atom
selenium, 78.96±0.03, terbatas pada tempat dua desimal karena perubahan
komposisi isotopnya. Di antara berbagai alotrop selenium, yang disebut<span> </span>dengan selenium merah adalah molekul Se8
dengan struktur mirip mahkota dan melarut dalam CS2. Selenium abu-abu metalik
berstruktur polimer heliks. Selenium hitam, dengan struktur polimer yang rumit,
juga melimpah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Diantara
senyawa-senyawa unsure selenium adalah: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selenide, selenate, selenite,
dimetil selenide, selenomethionine, selenocysteine, dan methylselenocysteine,
tembaga, perak, atau timah. sulfida selenide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kegunaan
dan Bahaya Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
adalah mineral penting yang dibutuhkan oleh tubuh. Mineral ini merupakan bagian
penting dari enzim<span> </span>antioksidan yang akan
melindungi sel tubuh terhadap efek negative yang ditimbulkan dari radikal
bebas.Selenium bekerja sebagai kofaktor untuk enzim yang terlibat dalam
oksidasi asam lemak dan penghancuran asam amino.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tubuh mengembangkan kemampuan
untuk melawan radikal bebas akan menghancurkan sel dan mempunyai kontribusi
terhadap perkembangan berbagai banyak kronik.Karena itu, selenium diduga mampu
untuk menahan laju ketuaan dan perangsang jaringan akibat proses
oksidasi.selain untuk melawan radikal bebas , selenium juga berperan sebagai
system imunitas (kekebalan tubuh) , fungsi kelenjar tiroid yang baik dan
keterlibatan selenium untuk mencegah kanker. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selain
fungsi selenium dalam bidang kesehatan, selenium juga berfungsi dalam bidang
industry yaitu selenium dan senyawanya yang digunakan dalam beberapa perangkat
fotografi, Selenium digunakan dalam xerografi untuk memperbanyak salinan
dokumen, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">surat</st1:city></st1:place>
dan lain-lain. Juga digunakan oleh industri kaca untuk mengawawarnakan kaca dan
untuk membuat kaca dan lapisan email gigi yang berwarna rubi. Juga digunakan
sebagai tinta fotografi dan sebagai bahan tambahan baja tahan karat dan
selenium berfungsi sebagai pistol bluing (solusi cair yang digunakan untuk
membersihkan bagian-bagian logam senjata), plastik, cat, shampoo anti-ketombe,
suplemen vitamin dan mineral, fungisida, dan beberapa jenis kaca. Sebagai
contoh, selenium sulfida digunakan di shampoo anti-ketombe dengan nama dagang
umum Selsun Blue. Selenium juga digunakan untuk menyiapkan obat-obatan dan
sebagai nutrisi suplemen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
adalah salah satu komponen yang sering dipelajari sejak ditemukan pada tahun
1950 sebagai suatu unsur , sampai akhirnya diketahui bahwa selenium memiliki
efek racun pada lingkungan. Selenium juga berbahaya bagi manusia dan hewan<span> </span>jika dimakan dalamjumlah yang melebihi
kebutuhan nutrisi. Kelebihan selenium mengakibatkan endema paru-paru, sakit
perut, penyakit kuning, kerontokan rambut dan kelelahan pada manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Garamond;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sumber
dan Pembuatan Selenium<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Tumbuhan
merupakan sumber utama dari selenium. Sayangnya, kadar selenium yang terdapat
pada tumbuhan seringkali berbeda-beda. Kadar dalam tumbuhan tergantung dari
kadar Selenium dalam tanah dimana mereka tumbuh. Akibatnya, defisiensi selenium
bisa terjadi pada mereka yang hidup di tanah yang sedikit mengandung selenium.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selain
dari tumbuhan, selenium bisa juga kita peroleh dari daging hewan termasuk
makanan laut. Selenium dalam makanan terdapat dalam bentuk seleno methionin dan
selenosistein.Selenium terjadi secara alami dalam beberapa bentuk anorganik,
termasuk selenide, selenate, dan Selenite. Dalam tanah, selenium paling sering
terjadi dalam bentuk larut seperti selenate (analog dengan sulfat), yang
tercuci ke sungai sangat mudah oleh limpasan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
memiliki peran biologis, dan ini ditemukan dalam senyawa organik seperti
dimetil selenide, selenomethionine, selenocysteine, dan methylselenocysteine.
Dalam senyawa selenium memainkan peran analog dengan belerang. Selenium ini
paling sering dihasilkan dari bijih sulfida selenide di banyak, seperti
tembaga, perak, atau timah. Hal ini diperoleh sebagai hasil sampingan dari
pengolahan bijih ini, dari lumpur anoda kilang tembaga dan lumpur dari ruang
utama tanaman asam sulfat. Lumpur tersebut dapat diproses oleh sejumlah sarana
untuk memperoleh selenium gratis. Alam sumber selenium termasuk tanah kaya
selenium tertentu, dan selenium yang telah bioconcentrated oleh tanaman
tertentu. sumber antropogenik selenium termasuk pembakaran batubara dan
pertambangan dan peleburan bijih sulfida. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Selenium
ditemukan dalam beberapa mineral yang cukup langka seperti kruksit dan
klausthalit. Beberapa tahun yang lalu, selenium didapatkan dari debu cerobong
asap yang tersisa dari proses bijih tembaga sulfida. Sekarang selenium di
seluruh dunia dihasilkan dari pemurnian kembali logam anoda dari proses
elektrolisis tembaga. Selenium diperoleh dari memanggang endapan hasil
elektrolisis dengan soda atau asam sulfat, atau dengan meleburkan endapan
tersebut dengan soda<span> </span>dan niter
(mineral<span> </span>yang mengandung kalium nitrat).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">BAB
III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PENUTUP<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Simpulan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arsen atau <span style="color: black;">arsenik</span>
yang sering diketahui sebagai salah satu limbah yang berbahaya dan beracun
merupakan bahan pencemar yang banyak terdapat di alam sebagai suatu unsur
alami. Selain terdapat secara alami di alam, Arsen atau Arsenic juga ditemukan
dalam bentuk limbah buangan dari industri – industri yang mencemari sungai –
sungai yang mengalir sepanjang daerah pemukiman penduduk. Arsenic melebihi ini
nilai dikenal ambang sebagai batas bahan yang pencemar karena dan kandungannya
yang terdapat dalam sungai atau badan air telah ditentukan membahayakan untuk
dikonsumsi makhluk hidup. Selain itu, yang dapat menyebabkan kesakitan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
Selenium
adalah zat padat alami yang banyak tetapi tidak merata dalam kerak bumi. Hal
ini juga umumnya ditemukan di bebatuan dan tanah. Selenium, dalam bentuk murni
abu-abu metalik kristal hitam, sering disebut sebagai unsur selenium atau debu.
Elemental selenium diproduksi secara komersial, terutama sebagai produk
sampingan dari tembaga pemurnian. Selenium tidak sering ditemukan di lingkungan
dalam bentuk mendasar, tetapi biasanya dikombinasikan dengan zat lain.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Germanium
adalah logam, tapi benar-benar tanpa properti metalik. <br />
Karena terdapat dalam fisiologi fenomena yang dikenal sebagai efek oleh
dehydrogenating dimana ion negatif hidrogen (yang dapat dipandang sebagai
sebuah elektron) dibuang dari tubuh, itu mengarah ke asumsi bahwa germanium
mungkin memiliki aplikasi biologis menarik juga. Mengacu pada tindakan
germanium organik dalam menangkap dan mengkombinasikan dengan ion hidrogen yang
telah terkumpul di dalam tubuh untuk dihilangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">DAFTRA PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Krull, I. S. (ed). (1991). Journal of
Chromatography Library_volume 47 Trace Metal Analysis and Speciation. 655
Avenue of the Americas: Elsevier Science Publishing Company,inc. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Mc Graw-Hill. (1994). Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology,
Third Edition. New York: Mc Graw Hill, inc.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Mohsin, Y. (2006). “Arsen”. http://chem-is-try.org/. (diakses pada
Minggu, 10 Oktober 2010). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
Sunardi. (2006). 116 UNSUR KIMIA Deskripsi dan Pemanfaatannya. Bandung:
CV. Yrama Widya.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
________. “Sumber dan Terjadinya Arsen di Lingkungan (SUKAR)”
http://www.ekologi.litbang.depkes.go.id/data/vol%202/Sukar2_2.pdf (diakses pada
Sabtu, 30 Oktober 2010).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 31.5pt; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
________. “Arsenic: Isolation”. http://www.webelements.com/arsenic/
(diakses pada Minggu, 31 Oktober 2010).<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 49.5pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-14819938085980790192012-10-01T07:36:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:36:19.775-07:00rekayasa genetika<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Latar Belakang Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perkembangan IPTEK adalah sebuah fenomena dan fakta yang
jelas dan pasti terjadi sebagai sebuah proses yang berlangsung ecara
terus-menerus bagi kehidupan global yang juga yang tidak mengenal istilah
berhenti. Hal ini senada dengan diungkapkannya oleh Ibnu Khaldum dalam
mukaddimahnya “Tidak ada masyarakat yang tidak berubah” dengan demikian dalam
merespon perkembangan IPTEK, menghenrikan jalannya perubahan adalah pekerjaan
yang mustahil untuk dilakukan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa Genetika akhir-akhir ini mengalami perkembangan
yang cukup drastis dan meminta perhatian yang cukup serius dikalangan manusia
pada umumnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebab
selain kontribusinya terhadap ilmu pengetahuan dan </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">su</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mber manfaat bagi kelangsungan hidup
manusia dan lingkungan, juga memunculkan persoalan-persoalan yang mendasar</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang perlu dicermati lebih serius guna
mengawal perkembangan bioteknologi di masa mendatang</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">elalui rekayasa genetika dan produk-produk yang
dihasilkannya telah menantang gagasan tradisional mengenai hakekat kehidupan
dan memunculkan berbagai persoalan, pertanyaan-pertanyaan etis, dan tingkat
kekhawatiran manusia yang sangat mencemaskan terhadap seluruh perkembangan dan
hasil rekayasa genetika tersebut.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jika dianalisa kemajuan dan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan
dan teknologi yang telah dicapai dewasa ini, seharusnya semakin memberi
kepuasan untuk hidup sehingga menghasilkan kehidupan yang lebih baik daripada
sebelumnya. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Akan
tetapi, kenyataan taklah demikian, terkadang penemuan ini dijadikan ajang
pemanfaatan makhluk hidup.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Banyak sekali penemuan genetika yang tidak masuk akal yang</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menyebabkan spesies baru yang tercipta
kehilangan nilai gunanya bagi kehidupan.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rumusan Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa yang dimaksud rekayasa genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa tujuan dilakukannya rakayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bagaimana tahap pembuatan insulin?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Bagaimana
penggunaan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">rekayasa</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">genetika</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">pada tanaman</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGAN</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">ISME) ?</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Tujuan Penulisan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk mengetahui apa itu rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk memahami tujuan dilakukannya rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi tahapa pembuatan insulin.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penggunaan rekayasa genetika pada
tanaman (Genetically Medified Organisme).<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Metode Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Penulisan Makalah ini dilakukan dengan metoda kajian
pustaka dan pengumpulan sumber-sumber dari berbagai media informasi.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">RAKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TUMBUHAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span> </span>Pengertian
Rekayasa Genetika<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika disebut juga ilmu keturunan, berasal dari kata
genos (bahasa latin), artinya suku bangsa-bangsa atau asal-usul. Secara
“Etimologi”kata genetika berasal dari kata genos dalam bahasa latin, yang
berarti asal mula kejadian. Namun, genetika bukanlah ilmu tentang asal mula
kejadian meskipun pada batas-batas tertentu memang ada kaitannya dengan hal itu
juga. Gen</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tika adalah ilmu yang mempelajari seluk beluk alih informasi
hayati dari generasi kegenerasi. Oleh karena cara berlangsungnya alih informasi
hayati tersebut mendasari adanya perbedaan dan persamaan sifat diantara
individu organisme, maka dengan singkat dapat pula dikatakan bahwa genetika
adalah ilmu tentang pewarisan sifat .Dalam ilmu ini dipelajari bagaimana sifat
keturunan (hereditas) itu diwariskan kepada anak cucu, serta variasi yang
mungkin timbul didalamnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika perlu dipelajari, agar kita
dapat mengetahui sifat-sifat keturunan kita sendiri serta setiap makhuk hidup
yang berada dilingkungan kita. kita sebagai manusia tidak hidup autonom dan
terinsolir dari makhuk lain sekitar kita tapi kita menjalin ekosistem dengan
mereka. karena itu selain kita harus mengetahui sifat-sifat menurun dalam tubuh
kita, juga pada tumbuhan dan hewan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lagi pula prinsip-prins</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">i</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">p genetika itu dapat disebut sama saja
bagi seluruh makluk. Karena manusia sulit dipakai sebagai objek atau bahan
percobaan genetis, kita</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mempelajari hukum-hukumnya lewat sifat menurun yang
terkandung</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dalam tubuh-tumbuhan dan hewan sekitar. </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dalam arti paling luas adalah penerapan
genetika untuk kepentingan manusia. Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan pemuliaaan
hewan atau tanaman melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian
pula penerapan mutasi buatan tanpa target dapat pula dimasukkan. Masyarakat
ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih sempit, yaitu
penerapan teknik-teknik genetika molekular untuk mengubah susunan genetik dalam
kromosom atau mengubah sistem ekspresi genetic</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika merupakan
transplantasi atau pencangkokan satu gen ke gen lainnya dimana dapat bersifat
antar gen dan dapat pula lintas gen sehingga mampu menghasilkan produk.
Rekayasa genetika juga diartikan sebagai perpindahan gen.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Teknologi Rekayasa Genetika merupakan
inti dari bioteknologi didifinisikan sebagai teknik in-vitro asam nukleat,
termasuk DNA rekombinan dan injeksi langsung DNA ke dalam sel atau organel;
atau fusi sel di luar keluarga taksonomi; yang dapat menembus rintangan
reproduksi dan rekombinasi alami, dan bukan teknik yang digunakan dalam
pemuliaan dan seleksi tradisional.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prinsip dasar teknologi rekayasa genetika adalah
memanipulasi atau melakukan perubahan susunan asam nukleat dari DNA (gen) atau
menyelipkan gen baru ke dalam struktur DNA organisme penerima. Gen yang
diselipkan dan organisme penerima dapat berasal dari organisme apa saja.
Misalnya, gen dari sel pankreas manusia yang kemudian diklon dan dimasukkan ke
dalam sel E.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Coli yang bertujuan untuk mendapatkan insulin</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuan Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa genetika pada tanaman mempunyai target
dan tujuan antara lain peningkatan produksi, peningkatan mutu produk supaya
tahan lama dalam penyimpanan pascapanen, peningkatan kandunagn gizi, tahan
terhadap serangan hama dan penyakit tertentu (serangga, bakteri, jamur, atau
virus), tahan terhadap herbisida, sterilitas dan fertilitas serangga jantan
(untuk produksi benih hibrida), toleransi terhadap pendinginan, penundaan
kematangan buah, kualitas aroma dan nutrisi, perubahan pigmentasi.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa Genetika pada
mikroba bertujuan untuk meningkatkan efektivitas kerja mikroba tersebut
(misalnya mikroba untuk fermentasi, pengikat nitrogen udara, meningkatkan
kesuburan tanah, mempercepat proses kompos dan pembuatan makanan ternak,
mikroba prebiotik untuk makanan olahan), dan untuk menghasilkan bahan
obat-obatan dan kosmetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Tahap
Pembuatan Insulin</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
yang masih mempunyai plasmid, plasmidnya dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim
Restriksi Endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Kemudian
gen insulin dari sel pankreas juga dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim restriksi</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Lalu gen
insulin ini di sisipkan pada plasmid bakteri dengan menggunakan enzim ligase
sehingga disebut dengan ADN rekombinan</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Setelah
itu ADN rekombinan itu dimasukkan ke dalam tubuh bakteri baru</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
dibiarkan berkembang biak dalam wadah fermentasi sehingga dihasilkan insulin.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Penyebab
Berkembangnya Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya enzim pemotong DNA yaitu enzim
restriksi endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya pengatur ekspresi DNA yang diawali
dengan penemuan operon laktosa pada prokariota</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya perekat biologi yaitu enzim ligase</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya medium untuk memindahkan gen ke dalam
sel mikroorganisme</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span>PENGGUNAAN
REKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TANAMAN</span></strong><strong><span> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISM)</span></strong><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong>Tanaman Transgenik dan Jenisnya</strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Transgenik terdiri dari kata trans yang berarti pindah dan gen yang
berarti pembawa sifat. Jadi transgenik adalah memindahkan gen dari satu makhluk
hidup kemakhluk hidup lainnya, baik dari satu tanaman ketanaman lainnya, atau
dari gen hewan ke tanaman. Transgenik secara definisi adalah <em>the use of
gene manipulation to permanently modify the cell or germ cells of organism</em>
(penggunaan manipulasi gen untuk mengadakan perubahan yang tetap pada sel
makhluk hidup). Teknologi transgenik atau kloning juga dilakukan pada dunia
peternakan, separti domba dolly yang diambil dari gen sel ambing susu domba
yang ditransplantasikan ke sel telurnya sendiri. Pada ikan-ikan teleostei,
menghasilkan ikan yang resisten terhadap pembusukan dan penyakit.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Tanaman transgenik pertama kalinya dibuat tahun 1973 oleh Herbert Boyer
dan Stanley Cohen. Pada tahun 1988 telah ada sekitar 23 tanaman transgenik,
pada tahun 1989 terdapat 30 tanaman, pada tahun 1990 lebih dari 40 tanaman.
Secara sederhana tanaman transgenik dibuat dengan cara mengambil gen-gen
tertentu yang baik pada makhluk hidup lain untuk disisipkan pada tanaman,
penyisipaan gen ini melalui suatu vector (perantara) yang biasanya menggu<span lang="IN">na</span>kan bakteri <em>Agrobacterium
tumefeciens</em> untuk tanaman dikotil atau partikel gen untuk tanaman monokotil,
lalu diinokulasikan pada tanaman target untuk menghasilkan tanaman yang
dikehendaki. <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
Tujuan dari
pengembangan tanaman transgenik ini diantaranya adalah<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->menghambat
pelunakan buah (pada tomat).<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->tahan
terhadap serangan insektisida, herbisida, virus.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan nilai gizi tanaman, dan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan kemampuan tanaman untuk hidup
pada lahan yang ektrem seperti lahan kering, lahan keasaman tinggi dan lahan
dengan kadar garam yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span lang="IN">Melihat potensi manfaat yang
disumbangkan, pendekatan bioteknologi dipandang mampu menyelesaikan
problematika pangan dunia terutama di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang
seperti yang sudah dilakukan di negara-negara maju (Winarno dan Agustina,2007).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Antara tahun 1996-2001 telah terjadi peningkat an yang sangat dramatis
dalam adopsi atau penanaman tanaman GMO (<em>Genetically Modified Organism</em>)
di seluruh dunia. Daerah penanaman global tanaman transgenik meningkat dari
sekitar 1,7 juta ha pada tahun 1996 menjadi 52,6 juta ha pada tahun 2001.
Peningkatan luas tanam GMO tersebut mengindikasikan semakin banyaknya petani
yang menanam tanaman ini baik di negara maju maupun di negara berkembang.
Sebagian besar tanaman transgenik ditanam di negara-negara maju. Amerika
Serikat sampai sekarang merupakan negara produsen terbesar di dunia. Pada tahun
2001, sebanyak 68% atau 35,7 juta ha tanaman transgenik ditanam di Amerika
Serikat.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Sampai saat ini, kedelai merupakan produk GMO terbesar yaitu 33,3 juta ha
atau sekitar 63% dari seluruh tanaman GMO. Kedelai tahan herbisida banyak ditanam
di AS, Argentina, Kanada, Meksiko, Rumania dan Uruguay. Jagung merupakan
tanaman GMO terbesar kedua yang ditanam yaitu seluas 9,8 juta ha sedangkan luas
tanaman kapas GMO yang ditanam adalah sekitar 6,8 juta ha . Sifat yang terdapat
dari tanaman GMO pada umumnya adalah resisten terhadap herbisida, pestisida,
hama serangga dan penyakit serta untuk meningkatkan nilai gizi seperti yang
terlihat di tabel di bawah ini.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin-left: 29.1pt; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>No</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Tujuan
Rekayasa Genetika</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Contoh
Tanaman</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
1<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Menghambat
pematangan dan pelunakan buah<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
2<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan insektisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat,
kentang, jagung<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
3<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan ulat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kapas<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
4<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kentang<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
5<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Squash, Pepaya<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
6<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Jagung, Padi,
Kapas dan Canola<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
7<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Toleran
terhadap herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kedelai,
Canola, Kapas, Jagung,<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
8<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Perbaikan
komposisi nilai gizi<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Canola (high
laurate oil), Kedelai (high oleid acid oil), Padi (high beta-carotene)<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Keunggulan Tanaman Transgenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Tahan Kekeringan</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tahan kekeringan memiliki akar yang sanggup menembus tanah
kering, kutikula yang tebal sehingga mengurangi kehilangan air dan kesanggupan
menyesuaikan diri dengan garam di dalam sel. Tanaman toleran terhadap
kekeringan ditransfer dari gen kapang yang mengeluarngkan enzim <em>trehalose</em>.
Tembakau adalah salah satu tanaman yang dapat toleran terhadap suasana
kekeringan.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Hama</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em> menghasilkan protein toksin sewaktu
terjadi sporulasi atau saat bakteri memberntuk spora. Dalam bentuk spora, berat
toksin mencapai 20% dari berat spora. Apabila larva serangga memakan spora,
maka di dalam alat pencernaan larva serangga tersebut, spora bakteri pecah dan
mengeluarkan toksin. Toksin yang masuk ke dalam membran sel alat pencernaan
larva mengakibatkan sistem pencernaan tidak berfungsi dengan baik dan pakan
tidak dapat diserap sehingga larva mati. Dengan membiakkan <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> kemudian diekstrak dan dimurnikan, makan akan diperoleh
insektisida biologis (biopestisida) dalam bentuk kristal. Pada tahun 1985
dimulai rekayasa gen dari Bacillus thuringiensis dengan kode gen Bt toksin
(Winarno dan Agustina ,2007)<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tembakau untuk pertama kali merupakan tanaman transgenik pertama
yang menggunakan gen BT toksin. Jagung juga telah direkayasa dengan menggunakan
gen Bt toksin, tetapi diintegrasikan dengan plasmid bakteri <em>Salmonella
parathypi</em> yang menghasilkan gen yang menonaktifkan ampisilin. Pada jagung
juga direkayasa adanya resistensi herbisida dan resistensi insektisida sehingga
tanaman transgenik jagung memiliki berbagai jenis resistensi hama tanaman. Gen
Bt toksin juga direkayasa ke tanaman kapas, bahkan <em>multiplegene</em> dapat
direkayasa genetika pada tanaman transgenik. Toksin yang diproduksi dengan
tanaman transgenik menjadi nonaktif apabila terkena sinar matahahari, khususnya
sinar ultraviolet<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Penyakit</span></strong><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Perkembangan yang<span> </span>signifikan
juga terjadi pada usaha untuk memproduksi tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari
serangan virus. Dengan memasukkan gen penyandi tanaman terselubung (<em>coat
protein</em>) <em>Johnson grass mosaic poty virus </em>(JGMV) ke dalam suatu
tanaman, diharapkan tanaman tersebut menjadi resisten apabila diserang oleh
virus yang bersangkutan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Potongan DNA dari JGMV, misalnya daRi protein terselubung dan protein <em>nuclear
inclusion body</em> (Nib) mampu diintegrasikan pada tanaman jagung dan
diharapkan akan menghasilkan tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari serangan virus.
Virus JGMV menyerang beberapa tanaman yang tergolong dalam famili <em>Graminae</em><span> </span>seperti jagung dan sorgum yang menimbulkan
kerugian ekonomi yang cukup besar. Gejala yang ditimbulkan dapat diamati pada
daun<span> </span>berupa mosaik, nekrosa atau
kombinasi keduanya. Akibat serangan virus ini, kerugian para petani menjadi
sangat tinggi atau bahkan tidak panen sama sekali.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Contoh Tanaman yang </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">T</span></strong><strong><span>elah Menggunakan Teknologi Rekayasa</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kedelai
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kedelai merupakan produk <em>Genetically Modified Organis</em><em><span lang="IN">me</span></em> terbesar yaitu sekitar 33,3
juta ha atau sekitar 63% dari total produk <em>GMO</em> yang ada. Dengan
rekayasa genetika, dihasilkan tanaman transgenik yang tahan terhadap hama,
tahan terhadap herbisida dan memiliki kualitas hasil yang tinggi. Saat ini
secara global telah dikomersialkan dua jenis kedelai transgenik yaitu kedelai
toleran herbisida dan kedelai dengan kandungan asam lemak tinggi<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Jagung Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN">Di Amerika Serikat, komoditi
jagung telah mengalami rekayasa genetika melalui teknologi rDNA, yaitu dengan
memanfaatkan gen dari bakteri <em>Bacillus thuringiensis </em>(Bt) untuk
menghindarkan diri dari serangan hama serangga yang disebut <em>corn borer</em>
sehingga dapat meningkatkan hasil panen. </span>Gen <em>Bacillus </em>thuringiensis
yang dipindahkan mampu memproduksi senyawa pestisida yang membunuh larva <em>corn
borer </em>tersebut<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dalam jangka pendek pengembangan jagung transgenik akan meningkatkan
produksi jagung nasional untuk pakan sebesar 145.170 ton dan konsumsi langsung
225.550 ton. Sementara dalam jangka panjang, penurunan harga jagung akan
merangsang kenaikan permintaan jagung baik oleh industri pakan maupun konsumsi
langsung. Bukan hanya itu, dengan meningkatkan produksi jagung Indonesia juga
menekan impor jagung yang kini jumlahnya masih cukup besar. Pada tahun 2006,
impor jagung masih mencapai 1,76 juta<span> </span>ton.<span> </span>Secara tidak langsung, penggunaan tanaman
transgenik juga<span> </span>meningkatkan
kesejahteraan masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kapas
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kapas hasil rekayasa genetika diperkenalkan tahun 1996 di Amerika
Serikat. Kapas yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika dapat menurunkan jumlah
penggunaan insektisida. Diantara gen yang paling banyak digunakan adalah gen <em>cry</em>
(gen toksin)<em> </em>dari <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, gen-gen dari
bakteri untuk sifat toleransi terhadap herbisida, gen yang menunda pemasakan
buah.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Bagi para petani, keuntungan dengan menggunakan kapas transgenik adalah
menekan penggunaan pestisida atau membersihkan gulma tanaman dengan herbisida
secara efektif tanpa mematikan tanaman kapas. Serangga merupakan kendala utama
pada produksi tanaman kapas. Di samping dapat menurunkan produksi, serangan
serangga hama dapat menurunkan kualitas kapas.Saat ini lebih dari 50 persen
areal pertanaman kapas di Amerika merupakan kapas transgenik dan beberapa tahun
ke depan seluruhnya sudah merupakan tanaman kapas transgenik. Demikian juga
dengan Cina dan India yang merupakan produsen kapas terbesar di dunia setelah
Amerika Serikat juga secara intensif telah mengembangkan kapas transgenik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tomat
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Pada pertanian konvensional, tomat harus dipanen ketika masih hijau tapi
belum matang. Hal ini disebabkan akrena tomat cepat lunak setelah matang.
Dengan demikian, tomat memiliki umur simpan yang pendek, cepat busuk dan
penanganan yang sulit. Tomat pada umumnya mengalami hal tersebut karena
memiliki gen yang menyebabkan buah tomat mudah lembek. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
enzim poligalakturonase yang berfungsi mempercepat degradasi pektin.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tomat transgenik memiliki suatu gen khusus yang disebut <em>antisenescens
</em>yang memperlambat proses pematangan (ripening) dengan cara memperlambat
sintesa enzim poligalakturonase sehungga menunda pelunakan tomat. Dengan
mengurangi produksi enzim poligalakturonase akan dapat diperbaiki sifat-sifat
pemrosesan tomat. Varietas baru tersebut dibiarkan matang di bagian batang
tanamannya untuk waktu yang lebih lama sebelum dipanen. Bila dibandingkan
dengan generasi tomat sebelumnya, tomat jenis baru telah mengalami perubahan
genetika, tahan terhadap penanganan dan ditransportasi lebih baik, dan
kemungkinan pecah atau rusak selama pemrosesan lebih sedikit.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kentang
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Mulai pada tanggal 15 Mei 1995, pemerintah Amerika <span lang="IN">men</span>yetujui untuk mengomersialkan kentang
hasil rekayasas genetika yang disebut Monsanto sebagai perusahaan penunjang
dengan sebutan kentang “<em>New Leaf</em>”.<span> </span>Jenis<span> </span>kentang hybrid tersebut mengandung<span> </span>materi genetic yang<span> </span>memnungkinkan kentang mampu melindungi dirinya terhadap serangan <em>Colorado
potato beetle</em>.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dengan demikian tanaman tersebut dapat menghindarkan diri dari penggunaan
pestisida kimia yang digunakan pada kentang tersebut. Selain resisten terhadap
serangan hama, kentang transgenik ini juga memiliki komposisi zat gizi yang
lebih baik bila dibandingkan dengan kentang pada umumnya. Hama <em>beetle </em>Colorado
merupakan suatu jenis serangga yang paling destruktif untuk komoditi kentang di
Amerika dan mampu menghancurkan sampai 85% produksi tahunan kentang bila tidak
ditanggulangi dengan baik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Daya perlindungan kentang transgenik tersebut berasal dari bakteri <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> sehingga kentang transgenik ini disebut juga dengan kentang
Bt.<span> </span>Sehingga diharapkan melalui
kentang transgenik ini akan membantu suplai kentang yang berkesinambungan,
sehat dan dalam jangkauan daya beli masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Berbagai keunggulan lain dari tanaman yang diperoleh dengan teknik
rekayasa genetika adalah sebagai berikut<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Menghasilkan jenis tanaman baru yang tahan
terhadap kondisi pertumbuhan yang keras seperti lahan kering, lahan yang
berkadar garam tinggi dan suhu lingkungan yang ekstrim. Bila berhasil dilakukan
modifikasi genetika pada tanaman, maka dihasilkan asam lemak linoleat yang
tinggi yang menyebabkan mampu hidup dengan baik pada suhu dingin dan beku.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Toleran terhadap herbisida yang ramah lingkungan
yang dapat mengganggu gulma, tetapi tidak mengganggu tanaman itu sendiri.
Contoh kedelai yang tahan herbisida dapat mempertahankan kondisi bebas gulamnya
hanya dengan separuh dari jumlah herbisida yang digunakan secara normal<span lang="IN">.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Meningkatkan sifat-sifat fungsional yang
dikehendaki, seperti mereduksi sifat atau daya alergi (toksisitas), menghambat
pematangan buah, kadar pati yang lebih tinggi serta daya simpan yang lebih
panjang. Misalnya, kentang yang telah mengalami teknologi rDNA, kadar patinya
menjadi lebih tinggi sehingga akan menyerap sedikit minyak bila goreng (<em>deep
fried</em>). Dengan demikian akan menghasilkan kentang goreng dengan kadar
lemak yang lebih rendah.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Sifat-sifat yang lebih dikehendaki, misalnya
kadar protein atau lemak dan meningkatnya kadar fitokimia dan kandungan gizi.
Kekurangan gizi saat ini telah melanda banyak negara di dunia terutama negara
miskin dan negara berkembang. Kekurangan gizi yang nyata adalah kekurangan
vitamin A, yodium, besi dan zink. Untuk menanggulanginya, dapat dilakukan
dengan menyisipkan den khusus yang mampu meningkatkan senyata-senyawa tersebut
dalam tanaman. Contohnya telah dikembangkan beras yang memiliki kandungan
betakaroten dan besi sehingga mampu menolong orang yang mengalami<span> </span>defisiensi senyawa tersebut dan mencegah
kekurangan gizi pada masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
Penggunaan rekayasa genetika khususnya pada tanaman tidak
terlepas dari pro kontra mengenai penggunaan teknologi tersebut. Berikut ini
hanya disebutkan berbagai pandangan yang setuju terhadap tanaman transgenik
karena mengacu pada judul yang disajikan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span lang="IN">Manfaat rekayasa
genetika :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Tanaman transgenik memiliki kualitas yang
lebih tinggi dibanding degan tanaman konvensional, memiliki kandungan nutrisi
yang lebih tinggi, tahan hama, tahan cuaca sehingga penanaman komoditas
tersebut dapat memenuhi kebutuhan pangan secara capat dan menghemat devisa
akibat penghematan pemakaian pestisida atau bahan kimia serta memiliki
produktivitas yang lebih tinggi.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Teknik
rekayasa genetika sama dengan pemuliaan tanaman yaitu memperbaiki sifat-sifat
tanaman dengan menambah sifat-sifat ketahanan terhadap cengkeraman hama maupun
lingkungan yang kurang menguntungkan sehingga tanaman transgenik memiliki
kualitas lebih baik dari tanaman konvensional serta bukan hal yang baru karena
sudah lama dilakukan tetapi tidak disadari oleh masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Mengurangi dampak kerusakan dan pencemaran
lingkungan, misalnya tanaman transgenik tidak perlu pupuk kimia dan pestisida
sehingga tanaman transgenik dapat membantu upaya perbaikan lingkungan<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dampak-Dampak Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap lingkungan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pola
tanam produk pertanian di Indonesia areal kecil dikelilingi oleh berbagai
gulma, dengan adanya sifat <i>cross-polination</i> dari GMO maka dikhawatirkan
akan bermunculan gulma baru yang lebih resisten.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tanpa membakar sisa tanaman GMO akan memusnahkan jasad renik
dalam tanah bekas penanaman tanaman GMO akibat sifat dari sisa GMO yang
bersifat toksis. Jangka panjang akan merubah struktur dan tekstur tanah.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat tanaman GMO yang dapat membunuh
larva kupu-kupu, akan memberikan kekhawatiran punahnya kupu-kupu di Sulawesi
Selatan. Seperti diketahui Sulawesi Selatan termasyhur dengan kupu-kupunya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Satu-satunya gangguan kesehatan akibat
penggunaan hasil rekayasa genetika ialah reaksi alergis yang sudah dapat
dibuktikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PENUTUP</span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Simpulan</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Rekayasa genetika adalah penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetika</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk kepentingan manusia.
Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_hewan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pemuliaan hewan</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_tanaman" title="Pemuliaan tanaman"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">
melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian pula penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mutasi</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> buatan tanpa target dapat
pula dimasukkan.</span><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> <span lang="IN">Walaupun
demikian, masyarakat ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih
sempit, yaitu penerapan teknik-teknik </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_molekular"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biologi
molekular</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk mengubah susunan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen" title="Gen"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> dalam </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">kromosom</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau mengubah sistem </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspresi_genetik" title="Ekspresi genetik"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ekspresi genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> yang
diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Berbagai contoh
tanaman yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika adalah kedelai, jagung, kapas,
tomat dan kentang. Di mana tersebut memiliki kelebihan tersendiri bila
dibandingkan dengan tanaman sejenis seperti tahan terhadap hama dan penyakit
dan memiliki komposisi gizi yang lebih baik. Walaupun masih menjadi kontroversi
diantara berbagai kalangan, khususnya pemerintah Indonesia setidaknya memiliki
satu solusi yang pasti untuk menghadapi krisis pangan yang menjadi ancaman saat
ini yaitu penggunaan rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Setelah melakukan pengkajian penulis dapat menyimpulkan :</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika adalah suatu kemajuan dibidang IPTEK yang
sangat bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan tingkat fungsional dari suatu makhluk
hidup atau organism</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika sangat baik digunakan asalkan masih dalam
batas kewajaran manusia yang masih bias dimengerti dengan akal pikiran manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dapat digunakan untuk memperbaiki
kerusakan dan merupakan alat untuk melakukan pembaharuan yang sangat efisien
jika digunakan dengan tepat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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<strong>DAFTAR
PUSTAKA</strong><strong><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2006.www.biotek.lipi.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=artic
&id=27:Tanaman%20Transgenik&catid=8&Itemid=53<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2008.http://bioteknews.blogspot.com/2008/01/apa-benar-kedelai-transgenik-berbahaya.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.
http://www.hupelita.com/baca.php?id=57657</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.http://moanbb.blogspot.com/2008/03/kapas-n-siapa-takut.html</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Buckle <em>et
all </em>.2007. Ilmu Pangan. UI Press : Jakarta</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Winarno,FG
.Agustina,W.2007. Pengantar Bioteknologi (<em>Revised Edition</em>). MBrio
Press :Jakarta</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi%20Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi</span><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
http://agrifm.blogspot.com/2007/12/mikroba-penyelamat-alami-global-warming.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-29692887099742827272012-10-01T07:35:00.005-07:002012-10-01T07:41:02.953-07:00rekayasa genetika<br />
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Latar Belakang Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perkembangan IPTEK adalah sebuah fenomena dan fakta yang
jelas dan pasti terjadi sebagai sebuah proses yang berlangsung ecara
terus-menerus bagi kehidupan global yang juga yang tidak mengenal istilah
berhenti. Hal ini senada dengan diungkapkannya oleh Ibnu Khaldum dalam
mukaddimahnya “Tidak ada masyarakat yang tidak berubah” dengan demikian dalam
merespon perkembangan IPTEK, menghenrikan jalannya perubahan adalah pekerjaan
yang mustahil untuk dilakukan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa Genetika akhir-akhir ini mengalami perkembangan
yang cukup drastis dan meminta perhatian yang cukup serius dikalangan manusia
pada umumnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebab
selain kontribusinya terhadap ilmu pengetahuan dan </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">su</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mber manfaat bagi kelangsungan hidup
manusia dan lingkungan, juga memunculkan persoalan-persoalan yang mendasar</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang perlu dicermati lebih serius guna
mengawal perkembangan bioteknologi di masa mendatang</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">elalui rekayasa genetika dan produk-produk yang
dihasilkannya telah menantang gagasan tradisional mengenai hakekat kehidupan
dan memunculkan berbagai persoalan, pertanyaan-pertanyaan etis, dan tingkat
kekhawatiran manusia yang sangat mencemaskan terhadap seluruh perkembangan dan
hasil rekayasa genetika tersebut.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jika dianalisa kemajuan dan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan
dan teknologi yang telah dicapai dewasa ini, seharusnya semakin memberi
kepuasan untuk hidup sehingga menghasilkan kehidupan yang lebih baik daripada
sebelumnya. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Akan
tetapi, kenyataan taklah demikian, terkadang penemuan ini dijadikan ajang
pemanfaatan makhluk hidup.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Banyak sekali penemuan genetika yang tidak masuk akal yang</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menyebabkan spesies baru yang tercipta
kehilangan nilai gunanya bagi kehidupan.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rumusan Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa yang dimaksud rekayasa genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa tujuan dilakukannya rakayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bagaimana tahap pembuatan insulin?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Bagaimana
penggunaan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">rekayasa</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">genetika</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">pada tanaman</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGAN</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">ISME) ?</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Tujuan Penulisan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk mengetahui apa itu rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk memahami tujuan dilakukannya rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi tahapa pembuatan insulin.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penggunaan rekayasa genetika pada
tanaman (Genetically Medified Organisme).<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Metode Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Penulisan Makalah ini dilakukan dengan metoda kajian
pustaka dan pengumpulan sumber-sumber dari berbagai media informasi.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">RAKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TUMBUHAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span> </span>Pengertian
Rekayasa Genetika<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika disebut juga ilmu keturunan, berasal dari kata
genos (bahasa latin), artinya suku bangsa-bangsa atau asal-usul. Secara
“Etimologi”kata genetika berasal dari kata genos dalam bahasa latin, yang
berarti asal mula kejadian. Namun, genetika bukanlah ilmu tentang asal mula
kejadian meskipun pada batas-batas tertentu memang ada kaitannya dengan hal itu
juga. Gen</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tika adalah ilmu yang mempelajari seluk beluk alih informasi
hayati dari generasi kegenerasi. Oleh karena cara berlangsungnya alih informasi
hayati tersebut mendasari adanya perbedaan dan persamaan sifat diantara
individu organisme, maka dengan singkat dapat pula dikatakan bahwa genetika
adalah ilmu tentang pewarisan sifat .Dalam ilmu ini dipelajari bagaimana sifat
keturunan (hereditas) itu diwariskan kepada anak cucu, serta variasi yang
mungkin timbul didalamnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika perlu dipelajari, agar kita
dapat mengetahui sifat-sifat keturunan kita sendiri serta setiap makhuk hidup
yang berada dilingkungan kita. kita sebagai manusia tidak hidup autonom dan
terinsolir dari makhuk lain sekitar kita tapi kita menjalin ekosistem dengan
mereka. karena itu selain kita harus mengetahui sifat-sifat menurun dalam tubuh
kita, juga pada tumbuhan dan hewan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lagi pula prinsip-prins</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">i</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">p genetika itu dapat disebut sama saja
bagi seluruh makluk. Karena manusia sulit dipakai sebagai objek atau bahan
percobaan genetis, kita</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mempelajari hukum-hukumnya lewat sifat menurun yang
terkandung</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dalam tubuh-tumbuhan dan hewan sekitar. </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dalam arti paling luas adalah penerapan
genetika untuk kepentingan manusia. Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan pemuliaaan
hewan atau tanaman melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian
pula penerapan mutasi buatan tanpa target dapat pula dimasukkan. Masyarakat
ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih sempit, yaitu
penerapan teknik-teknik genetika molekular untuk mengubah susunan genetik dalam
kromosom atau mengubah sistem ekspresi genetic</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika merupakan
transplantasi atau pencangkokan satu gen ke gen lainnya dimana dapat bersifat
antar gen dan dapat pula lintas gen sehingga mampu menghasilkan produk.
Rekayasa genetika juga diartikan sebagai perpindahan gen.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Teknologi Rekayasa Genetika merupakan
inti dari bioteknologi didifinisikan sebagai teknik in-vitro asam nukleat,
termasuk DNA rekombinan dan injeksi langsung DNA ke dalam sel atau organel;
atau fusi sel di luar keluarga taksonomi; yang dapat menembus rintangan
reproduksi dan rekombinasi alami, dan bukan teknik yang digunakan dalam
pemuliaan dan seleksi tradisional.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prinsip dasar teknologi rekayasa genetika adalah
memanipulasi atau melakukan perubahan susunan asam nukleat dari DNA (gen) atau
menyelipkan gen baru ke dalam struktur DNA organisme penerima. Gen yang
diselipkan dan organisme penerima dapat berasal dari organisme apa saja.
Misalnya, gen dari sel pankreas manusia yang kemudian diklon dan dimasukkan ke
dalam sel E.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Coli yang bertujuan untuk mendapatkan insulin</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuan Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa genetika pada tanaman mempunyai target
dan tujuan antara lain peningkatan produksi, peningkatan mutu produk supaya
tahan lama dalam penyimpanan pascapanen, peningkatan kandunagn gizi, tahan
terhadap serangan hama dan penyakit tertentu (serangga, bakteri, jamur, atau
virus), tahan terhadap herbisida, sterilitas dan fertilitas serangga jantan
(untuk produksi benih hibrida), toleransi terhadap pendinginan, penundaan
kematangan buah, kualitas aroma dan nutrisi, perubahan pigmentasi.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa Genetika pada
mikroba bertujuan untuk meningkatkan efektivitas kerja mikroba tersebut
(misalnya mikroba untuk fermentasi, pengikat nitrogen udara, meningkatkan
kesuburan tanah, mempercepat proses kompos dan pembuatan makanan ternak,
mikroba prebiotik untuk makanan olahan), dan untuk menghasilkan bahan
obat-obatan dan kosmetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Tahap
Pembuatan Insulin</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
yang masih mempunyai plasmid, plasmidnya dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim
Restriksi Endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Kemudian
gen insulin dari sel pankreas juga dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim restriksi</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Lalu gen
insulin ini di sisipkan pada plasmid bakteri dengan menggunakan enzim ligase
sehingga disebut dengan ADN rekombinan</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Setelah
itu ADN rekombinan itu dimasukkan ke dalam tubuh bakteri baru</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
dibiarkan berkembang biak dalam wadah fermentasi sehingga dihasilkan insulin.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 49.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Penyebab
Berkembangnya Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya enzim pemotong DNA yaitu enzim
restriksi endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya pengatur ekspresi DNA yang diawali
dengan penemuan operon laktosa pada prokariota</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya perekat biologi yaitu enzim ligase</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya medium untuk memindahkan gen ke dalam
sel mikroorganisme</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span>PENGGUNAAN
REKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TANAMAN</span></strong><strong><span> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISM)</span></strong><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong>Tanaman Transgenik dan Jenisnya</strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Transgenik terdiri dari kata trans yang berarti pindah dan gen yang
berarti pembawa sifat. Jadi transgenik adalah memindahkan gen dari satu makhluk
hidup kemakhluk hidup lainnya, baik dari satu tanaman ketanaman lainnya, atau
dari gen hewan ke tanaman. Transgenik secara definisi adalah <em>the use of
gene manipulation to permanently modify the cell or germ cells of organism</em>
(penggunaan manipulasi gen untuk mengadakan perubahan yang tetap pada sel
makhluk hidup). Teknologi transgenik atau kloning juga dilakukan pada dunia
peternakan, separti domba dolly yang diambil dari gen sel ambing susu domba
yang ditransplantasikan ke sel telurnya sendiri. Pada ikan-ikan teleostei,
menghasilkan ikan yang resisten terhadap pembusukan dan penyakit.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Tanaman transgenik pertama kalinya dibuat tahun 1973 oleh Herbert Boyer
dan Stanley Cohen. Pada tahun 1988 telah ada sekitar 23 tanaman transgenik,
pada tahun 1989 terdapat 30 tanaman, pada tahun 1990 lebih dari 40 tanaman.
Secara sederhana tanaman transgenik dibuat dengan cara mengambil gen-gen
tertentu yang baik pada makhluk hidup lain untuk disisipkan pada tanaman,
penyisipaan gen ini melalui suatu vector (perantara) yang biasanya menggu<span lang="IN">na</span>kan bakteri <em>Agrobacterium
tumefeciens</em> untuk tanaman dikotil atau partikel gen untuk tanaman monokotil,
lalu diinokulasikan pada tanaman target untuk menghasilkan tanaman yang
dikehendaki. <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
Tujuan dari
pengembangan tanaman transgenik ini diantaranya adalah<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->menghambat
pelunakan buah (pada tomat).<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->tahan
terhadap serangan insektisida, herbisida, virus.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan nilai gizi tanaman, dan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan kemampuan tanaman untuk hidup
pada lahan yang ektrem seperti lahan kering, lahan keasaman tinggi dan lahan
dengan kadar garam yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span lang="IN">Melihat potensi manfaat yang
disumbangkan, pendekatan bioteknologi dipandang mampu menyelesaikan
problematika pangan dunia terutama di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang
seperti yang sudah dilakukan di negara-negara maju (Winarno dan Agustina,2007).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Antara tahun 1996-2001 telah terjadi peningkat an yang sangat dramatis
dalam adopsi atau penanaman tanaman GMO (<em>Genetically Modified Organism</em>)
di seluruh dunia. Daerah penanaman global tanaman transgenik meningkat dari
sekitar 1,7 juta ha pada tahun 1996 menjadi 52,6 juta ha pada tahun 2001.
Peningkatan luas tanam GMO tersebut mengindikasikan semakin banyaknya petani
yang menanam tanaman ini baik di negara maju maupun di negara berkembang.
Sebagian besar tanaman transgenik ditanam di negara-negara maju. Amerika
Serikat sampai sekarang merupakan negara produsen terbesar di dunia. Pada tahun
2001, sebanyak 68% atau 35,7 juta ha tanaman transgenik ditanam di Amerika
Serikat.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Sampai saat ini, kedelai merupakan produk GMO terbesar yaitu 33,3 juta ha
atau sekitar 63% dari seluruh tanaman GMO. Kedelai tahan herbisida banyak ditanam
di AS, Argentina, Kanada, Meksiko, Rumania dan Uruguay. Jagung merupakan
tanaman GMO terbesar kedua yang ditanam yaitu seluas 9,8 juta ha sedangkan luas
tanaman kapas GMO yang ditanam adalah sekitar 6,8 juta ha . Sifat yang terdapat
dari tanaman GMO pada umumnya adalah resisten terhadap herbisida, pestisida,
hama serangga dan penyakit serta untuk meningkatkan nilai gizi seperti yang
terlihat di tabel di bawah ini.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin-left: 29.1pt; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>No</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Tujuan
Rekayasa Genetika</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Contoh
Tanaman</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
1<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Menghambat
pematangan dan pelunakan buah<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
2<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan insektisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat,
kentang, jagung<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
3<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan ulat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kapas<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
4<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kentang<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
5<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Squash, Pepaya<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
6<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Jagung, Padi,
Kapas dan Canola<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
7<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Toleran
terhadap herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kedelai,
Canola, Kapas, Jagung,<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
8<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Perbaikan
komposisi nilai gizi<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Canola (high
laurate oil), Kedelai (high oleid acid oil), Padi (high beta-carotene)<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Keunggulan Tanaman Transgenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Tahan Kekeringan</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tahan kekeringan memiliki akar yang sanggup menembus tanah
kering, kutikula yang tebal sehingga mengurangi kehilangan air dan kesanggupan
menyesuaikan diri dengan garam di dalam sel. Tanaman toleran terhadap
kekeringan ditransfer dari gen kapang yang mengeluarngkan enzim <em>trehalose</em>.
Tembakau adalah salah satu tanaman yang dapat toleran terhadap suasana
kekeringan.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Hama</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em> menghasilkan protein toksin sewaktu
terjadi sporulasi atau saat bakteri memberntuk spora. Dalam bentuk spora, berat
toksin mencapai 20% dari berat spora. Apabila larva serangga memakan spora,
maka di dalam alat pencernaan larva serangga tersebut, spora bakteri pecah dan
mengeluarkan toksin. Toksin yang masuk ke dalam membran sel alat pencernaan
larva mengakibatkan sistem pencernaan tidak berfungsi dengan baik dan pakan
tidak dapat diserap sehingga larva mati. Dengan membiakkan <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> kemudian diekstrak dan dimurnikan, makan akan diperoleh
insektisida biologis (biopestisida) dalam bentuk kristal. Pada tahun 1985
dimulai rekayasa gen dari Bacillus thuringiensis dengan kode gen Bt toksin
(Winarno dan Agustina ,2007)<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tembakau untuk pertama kali merupakan tanaman transgenik pertama
yang menggunakan gen BT toksin. Jagung juga telah direkayasa dengan menggunakan
gen Bt toksin, tetapi diintegrasikan dengan plasmid bakteri <em>Salmonella
parathypi</em> yang menghasilkan gen yang menonaktifkan ampisilin. Pada jagung
juga direkayasa adanya resistensi herbisida dan resistensi insektisida sehingga
tanaman transgenik jagung memiliki berbagai jenis resistensi hama tanaman. Gen
Bt toksin juga direkayasa ke tanaman kapas, bahkan <em>multiplegene</em> dapat
direkayasa genetika pada tanaman transgenik. Toksin yang diproduksi dengan
tanaman transgenik menjadi nonaktif apabila terkena sinar matahahari, khususnya
sinar ultraviolet<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Penyakit</span></strong><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Perkembangan yang<span> </span>signifikan
juga terjadi pada usaha untuk memproduksi tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari
serangan virus. Dengan memasukkan gen penyandi tanaman terselubung (<em>coat
protein</em>) <em>Johnson grass mosaic poty virus </em>(JGMV) ke dalam suatu
tanaman, diharapkan tanaman tersebut menjadi resisten apabila diserang oleh
virus yang bersangkutan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Potongan DNA dari JGMV, misalnya daRi protein terselubung dan protein <em>nuclear
inclusion body</em> (Nib) mampu diintegrasikan pada tanaman jagung dan
diharapkan akan menghasilkan tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari serangan virus.
Virus JGMV menyerang beberapa tanaman yang tergolong dalam famili <em>Graminae</em><span> </span>seperti jagung dan sorgum yang menimbulkan
kerugian ekonomi yang cukup besar. Gejala yang ditimbulkan dapat diamati pada
daun<span> </span>berupa mosaik, nekrosa atau
kombinasi keduanya. Akibat serangan virus ini, kerugian para petani menjadi
sangat tinggi atau bahkan tidak panen sama sekali.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Contoh Tanaman yang </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">T</span></strong><strong><span>elah Menggunakan Teknologi Rekayasa</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kedelai
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kedelai merupakan produk <em>Genetically Modified Organis</em><em><span lang="IN">me</span></em> terbesar yaitu sekitar 33,3
juta ha atau sekitar 63% dari total produk <em>GMO</em> yang ada. Dengan
rekayasa genetika, dihasilkan tanaman transgenik yang tahan terhadap hama,
tahan terhadap herbisida dan memiliki kualitas hasil yang tinggi. Saat ini
secara global telah dikomersialkan dua jenis kedelai transgenik yaitu kedelai
toleran herbisida dan kedelai dengan kandungan asam lemak tinggi<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Jagung Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN">Di Amerika Serikat, komoditi
jagung telah mengalami rekayasa genetika melalui teknologi rDNA, yaitu dengan
memanfaatkan gen dari bakteri <em>Bacillus thuringiensis </em>(Bt) untuk
menghindarkan diri dari serangan hama serangga yang disebut <em>corn borer</em>
sehingga dapat meningkatkan hasil panen. </span>Gen <em>Bacillus </em>thuringiensis
yang dipindahkan mampu memproduksi senyawa pestisida yang membunuh larva <em>corn
borer </em>tersebut<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dalam jangka pendek pengembangan jagung transgenik akan meningkatkan
produksi jagung nasional untuk pakan sebesar 145.170 ton dan konsumsi langsung
225.550 ton. Sementara dalam jangka panjang, penurunan harga jagung akan
merangsang kenaikan permintaan jagung baik oleh industri pakan maupun konsumsi
langsung. Bukan hanya itu, dengan meningkatkan produksi jagung Indonesia juga
menekan impor jagung yang kini jumlahnya masih cukup besar. Pada tahun 2006,
impor jagung masih mencapai 1,76 juta<span> </span>ton.<span> </span>Secara tidak langsung, penggunaan tanaman
transgenik juga<span> </span>meningkatkan
kesejahteraan masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kapas
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kapas hasil rekayasa genetika diperkenalkan tahun 1996 di Amerika
Serikat. Kapas yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika dapat menurunkan jumlah
penggunaan insektisida. Diantara gen yang paling banyak digunakan adalah gen <em>cry</em>
(gen toksin)<em> </em>dari <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, gen-gen dari
bakteri untuk sifat toleransi terhadap herbisida, gen yang menunda pemasakan
buah.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Bagi para petani, keuntungan dengan menggunakan kapas transgenik adalah
menekan penggunaan pestisida atau membersihkan gulma tanaman dengan herbisida
secara efektif tanpa mematikan tanaman kapas. Serangga merupakan kendala utama
pada produksi tanaman kapas. Di samping dapat menurunkan produksi, serangan
serangga hama dapat menurunkan kualitas kapas.Saat ini lebih dari 50 persen
areal pertanaman kapas di Amerika merupakan kapas transgenik dan beberapa tahun
ke depan seluruhnya sudah merupakan tanaman kapas transgenik. Demikian juga
dengan Cina dan India yang merupakan produsen kapas terbesar di dunia setelah
Amerika Serikat juga secara intensif telah mengembangkan kapas transgenik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tomat
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Pada pertanian konvensional, tomat harus dipanen ketika masih hijau tapi
belum matang. Hal ini disebabkan akrena tomat cepat lunak setelah matang.
Dengan demikian, tomat memiliki umur simpan yang pendek, cepat busuk dan
penanganan yang sulit. Tomat pada umumnya mengalami hal tersebut karena
memiliki gen yang menyebabkan buah tomat mudah lembek. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
enzim poligalakturonase yang berfungsi mempercepat degradasi pektin.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tomat transgenik memiliki suatu gen khusus yang disebut <em>antisenescens
</em>yang memperlambat proses pematangan (ripening) dengan cara memperlambat
sintesa enzim poligalakturonase sehungga menunda pelunakan tomat. Dengan
mengurangi produksi enzim poligalakturonase akan dapat diperbaiki sifat-sifat
pemrosesan tomat. Varietas baru tersebut dibiarkan matang di bagian batang
tanamannya untuk waktu yang lebih lama sebelum dipanen. Bila dibandingkan
dengan generasi tomat sebelumnya, tomat jenis baru telah mengalami perubahan
genetika, tahan terhadap penanganan dan ditransportasi lebih baik, dan
kemungkinan pecah atau rusak selama pemrosesan lebih sedikit.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kentang
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Mulai pada tanggal 15 Mei 1995, pemerintah Amerika <span lang="IN">men</span>yetujui untuk mengomersialkan kentang
hasil rekayasas genetika yang disebut Monsanto sebagai perusahaan penunjang
dengan sebutan kentang “<em>New Leaf</em>”.<span> </span>Jenis<span> </span>kentang hybrid tersebut mengandung<span> </span>materi genetic yang<span> </span>memnungkinkan kentang mampu melindungi dirinya terhadap serangan <em>Colorado
potato beetle</em>.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dengan demikian tanaman tersebut dapat menghindarkan diri dari penggunaan
pestisida kimia yang digunakan pada kentang tersebut. Selain resisten terhadap
serangan hama, kentang transgenik ini juga memiliki komposisi zat gizi yang
lebih baik bila dibandingkan dengan kentang pada umumnya. Hama <em>beetle </em>Colorado
merupakan suatu jenis serangga yang paling destruktif untuk komoditi kentang di
Amerika dan mampu menghancurkan sampai 85% produksi tahunan kentang bila tidak
ditanggulangi dengan baik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Daya perlindungan kentang transgenik tersebut berasal dari bakteri <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> sehingga kentang transgenik ini disebut juga dengan kentang
Bt.<span> </span>Sehingga diharapkan melalui
kentang transgenik ini akan membantu suplai kentang yang berkesinambungan,
sehat dan dalam jangkauan daya beli masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Berbagai keunggulan lain dari tanaman yang diperoleh dengan teknik
rekayasa genetika adalah sebagai berikut<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Menghasilkan jenis tanaman baru yang tahan
terhadap kondisi pertumbuhan yang keras seperti lahan kering, lahan yang
berkadar garam tinggi dan suhu lingkungan yang ekstrim. Bila berhasil dilakukan
modifikasi genetika pada tanaman, maka dihasilkan asam lemak linoleat yang
tinggi yang menyebabkan mampu hidup dengan baik pada suhu dingin dan beku.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Toleran terhadap herbisida yang ramah lingkungan
yang dapat mengganggu gulma, tetapi tidak mengganggu tanaman itu sendiri.
Contoh kedelai yang tahan herbisida dapat mempertahankan kondisi bebas gulamnya
hanya dengan separuh dari jumlah herbisida yang digunakan secara normal<span lang="IN">.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Meningkatkan sifat-sifat fungsional yang
dikehendaki, seperti mereduksi sifat atau daya alergi (toksisitas), menghambat
pematangan buah, kadar pati yang lebih tinggi serta daya simpan yang lebih
panjang. Misalnya, kentang yang telah mengalami teknologi rDNA, kadar patinya
menjadi lebih tinggi sehingga akan menyerap sedikit minyak bila goreng (<em>deep
fried</em>). Dengan demikian akan menghasilkan kentang goreng dengan kadar
lemak yang lebih rendah.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Sifat-sifat yang lebih dikehendaki, misalnya
kadar protein atau lemak dan meningkatnya kadar fitokimia dan kandungan gizi.
Kekurangan gizi saat ini telah melanda banyak negara di dunia terutama negara
miskin dan negara berkembang. Kekurangan gizi yang nyata adalah kekurangan
vitamin A, yodium, besi dan zink. Untuk menanggulanginya, dapat dilakukan
dengan menyisipkan den khusus yang mampu meningkatkan senyata-senyawa tersebut
dalam tanaman. Contohnya telah dikembangkan beras yang memiliki kandungan
betakaroten dan besi sehingga mampu menolong orang yang mengalami<span> </span>defisiensi senyawa tersebut dan mencegah
kekurangan gizi pada masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Penggunaan rekayasa genetika khususnya pada tanaman tidak
terlepas dari pro kontra mengenai penggunaan teknologi tersebut. Berikut ini
hanya disebutkan berbagai pandangan yang setuju terhadap tanaman transgenik
karena mengacu pada judul yang disajikan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Manfaat rekayasa
genetika :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Tanaman transgenik memiliki kualitas yang
lebih tinggi dibanding degan tanaman konvensional, memiliki kandungan nutrisi
yang lebih tinggi, tahan hama, tahan cuaca sehingga penanaman komoditas
tersebut dapat memenuhi kebutuhan pangan secara capat dan menghemat devisa
akibat penghematan pemakaian pestisida atau bahan kimia serta memiliki
produktivitas yang lebih tinggi.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Teknik
rekayasa genetika sama dengan pemuliaan tanaman yaitu memperbaiki sifat-sifat
tanaman dengan menambah sifat-sifat ketahanan terhadap cengkeraman hama maupun
lingkungan yang kurang menguntungkan sehingga tanaman transgenik memiliki
kualitas lebih baik dari tanaman konvensional serta bukan hal yang baru karena
sudah lama dilakukan tetapi tidak disadari oleh masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Mengurangi dampak kerusakan dan pencemaran
lingkungan, misalnya tanaman transgenik tidak perlu pupuk kimia dan pestisida
sehingga tanaman transgenik dapat membantu upaya perbaikan lingkungan<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dampak-Dampak Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap lingkungan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pola
tanam produk pertanian di Indonesia areal kecil dikelilingi oleh berbagai
gulma, dengan adanya sifat <i>cross-polination</i> dari GMO maka dikhawatirkan
akan bermunculan gulma baru yang lebih resisten.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tanpa membakar sisa tanaman GMO akan memusnahkan jasad renik
dalam tanah bekas penanaman tanaman GMO akibat sifat dari sisa GMO yang
bersifat toksis. Jangka panjang akan merubah struktur dan tekstur tanah.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat tanaman GMO yang dapat membunuh
larva kupu-kupu, akan memberikan kekhawatiran punahnya kupu-kupu di Sulawesi
Selatan. Seperti diketahui Sulawesi Selatan termasyhur dengan kupu-kupunya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Satu-satunya gangguan kesehatan akibat
penggunaan hasil rekayasa genetika ialah reaksi alergis yang sudah dapat
dibuktikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PENUTUP</span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Simpulan</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Rekayasa genetika adalah penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetika</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk kepentingan manusia.
Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_hewan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pemuliaan hewan</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_tanaman" title="Pemuliaan tanaman"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">
melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian pula penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mutasi</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> buatan tanpa target dapat
pula dimasukkan.</span><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> <span lang="IN">Walaupun
demikian, masyarakat ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih
sempit, yaitu penerapan teknik-teknik </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_molekular"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biologi
molekular</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk mengubah susunan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen" title="Gen"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> dalam </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">kromosom</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau mengubah sistem </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspresi_genetik" title="Ekspresi genetik"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ekspresi genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> yang
diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Berbagai contoh
tanaman yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika adalah kedelai, jagung, kapas,
tomat dan kentang. Di mana tersebut memiliki kelebihan tersendiri bila
dibandingkan dengan tanaman sejenis seperti tahan terhadap hama dan penyakit
dan memiliki komposisi gizi yang lebih baik. Walaupun masih menjadi kontroversi
diantara berbagai kalangan, khususnya pemerintah Indonesia setidaknya memiliki
satu solusi yang pasti untuk menghadapi krisis pangan yang menjadi ancaman saat
ini yaitu penggunaan rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Setelah melakukan pengkajian penulis dapat menyimpulkan :</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika adalah suatu kemajuan dibidang IPTEK yang
sangat bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan tingkat fungsional dari suatu makhluk
hidup atau organism</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78.0pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika sangat baik digunakan asalkan masih dalam
batas kewajaran manusia yang masih bias dimengerti dengan akal pikiran manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78.0pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dapat digunakan untuk memperbaiki
kerusakan dan merupakan alat untuk melakukan pembaharuan yang sangat efisien
jika digunakan dengan tepat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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<strong>DAFTAR
PUSTAKA</strong><strong><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2006.www.biotek.lipi.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=artic
&id=27:Tanaman%20Transgenik&catid=8&Itemid=53<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2008.http://bioteknews.blogspot.com/2008/01/apa-benar-kedelai-transgenik-berbahaya.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.
http://www.hupelita.com/baca.php?id=57657</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.http://moanbb.blogspot.com/2008/03/kapas-n-siapa-takut.html</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Buckle <em>et
all </em>.2007. Ilmu Pangan. UI Press : Jakarta</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Winarno,FG
.Agustina,W.2007. Pengantar Bioteknologi (<em>Revised Edition</em>). MBrio
Press :Jakarta</div>
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<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi%20Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi</span><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
http://agrifm.blogspot.com/2007/12/mikroba-penyelamat-alami-global-warming.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-32065127640084194092012-10-01T07:35:00.003-07:002012-10-01T07:35:47.897-07:00rekayasa genetika<br />
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Latar Belakang Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perkembangan IPTEK adalah sebuah fenomena dan fakta yang
jelas dan pasti terjadi sebagai sebuah proses yang berlangsung ecara
terus-menerus bagi kehidupan global yang juga yang tidak mengenal istilah
berhenti. Hal ini senada dengan diungkapkannya oleh Ibnu Khaldum dalam
mukaddimahnya “Tidak ada masyarakat yang tidak berubah” dengan demikian dalam
merespon perkembangan IPTEK, menghenrikan jalannya perubahan adalah pekerjaan
yang mustahil untuk dilakukan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa Genetika akhir-akhir ini mengalami perkembangan
yang cukup drastis dan meminta perhatian yang cukup serius dikalangan manusia
pada umumnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebab
selain kontribusinya terhadap ilmu pengetahuan dan </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">su</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mber manfaat bagi kelangsungan hidup
manusia dan lingkungan, juga memunculkan persoalan-persoalan yang mendasar</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang perlu dicermati lebih serius guna
mengawal perkembangan bioteknologi di masa mendatang</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">elalui rekayasa genetika dan produk-produk yang
dihasilkannya telah menantang gagasan tradisional mengenai hakekat kehidupan
dan memunculkan berbagai persoalan, pertanyaan-pertanyaan etis, dan tingkat
kekhawatiran manusia yang sangat mencemaskan terhadap seluruh perkembangan dan
hasil rekayasa genetika tersebut.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jika dianalisa kemajuan dan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan
dan teknologi yang telah dicapai dewasa ini, seharusnya semakin memberi
kepuasan untuk hidup sehingga menghasilkan kehidupan yang lebih baik daripada
sebelumnya. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Akan
tetapi, kenyataan taklah demikian, terkadang penemuan ini dijadikan ajang
pemanfaatan makhluk hidup.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Banyak sekali penemuan genetika yang tidak masuk akal yang</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menyebabkan spesies baru yang tercipta
kehilangan nilai gunanya bagi kehidupan.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rumusan Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa yang dimaksud rekayasa genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa tujuan dilakukannya rakayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bagaimana tahap pembuatan insulin?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Bagaimana
penggunaan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">rekayasa</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">genetika</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">pada tanaman</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGAN</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">ISME) ?</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Tujuan Penulisan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk mengetahui apa itu rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk memahami tujuan dilakukannya rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi tahapa pembuatan insulin.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penggunaan rekayasa genetika pada
tanaman (Genetically Medified Organisme).<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Metode Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Penulisan Makalah ini dilakukan dengan metoda kajian
pustaka dan pengumpulan sumber-sumber dari berbagai media informasi.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">RAKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TUMBUHAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span> </span>Pengertian
Rekayasa Genetika<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika disebut juga ilmu keturunan, berasal dari kata
genos (bahasa latin), artinya suku bangsa-bangsa atau asal-usul. Secara
“Etimologi”kata genetika berasal dari kata genos dalam bahasa latin, yang
berarti asal mula kejadian. Namun, genetika bukanlah ilmu tentang asal mula
kejadian meskipun pada batas-batas tertentu memang ada kaitannya dengan hal itu
juga. Gen</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tika adalah ilmu yang mempelajari seluk beluk alih informasi
hayati dari generasi kegenerasi. Oleh karena cara berlangsungnya alih informasi
hayati tersebut mendasari adanya perbedaan dan persamaan sifat diantara
individu organisme, maka dengan singkat dapat pula dikatakan bahwa genetika
adalah ilmu tentang pewarisan sifat .Dalam ilmu ini dipelajari bagaimana sifat
keturunan (hereditas) itu diwariskan kepada anak cucu, serta variasi yang
mungkin timbul didalamnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika perlu dipelajari, agar kita
dapat mengetahui sifat-sifat keturunan kita sendiri serta setiap makhuk hidup
yang berada dilingkungan kita. kita sebagai manusia tidak hidup autonom dan
terinsolir dari makhuk lain sekitar kita tapi kita menjalin ekosistem dengan
mereka. karena itu selain kita harus mengetahui sifat-sifat menurun dalam tubuh
kita, juga pada tumbuhan dan hewan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lagi pula prinsip-prins</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">i</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">p genetika itu dapat disebut sama saja
bagi seluruh makluk. Karena manusia sulit dipakai sebagai objek atau bahan
percobaan genetis, kita</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mempelajari hukum-hukumnya lewat sifat menurun yang
terkandung</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dalam tubuh-tumbuhan dan hewan sekitar. </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dalam arti paling luas adalah penerapan
genetika untuk kepentingan manusia. Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan pemuliaaan
hewan atau tanaman melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian
pula penerapan mutasi buatan tanpa target dapat pula dimasukkan. Masyarakat
ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih sempit, yaitu
penerapan teknik-teknik genetika molekular untuk mengubah susunan genetik dalam
kromosom atau mengubah sistem ekspresi genetic</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika merupakan
transplantasi atau pencangkokan satu gen ke gen lainnya dimana dapat bersifat
antar gen dan dapat pula lintas gen sehingga mampu menghasilkan produk.
Rekayasa genetika juga diartikan sebagai perpindahan gen.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Teknologi Rekayasa Genetika merupakan
inti dari bioteknologi didifinisikan sebagai teknik in-vitro asam nukleat,
termasuk DNA rekombinan dan injeksi langsung DNA ke dalam sel atau organel;
atau fusi sel di luar keluarga taksonomi; yang dapat menembus rintangan
reproduksi dan rekombinasi alami, dan bukan teknik yang digunakan dalam
pemuliaan dan seleksi tradisional.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prinsip dasar teknologi rekayasa genetika adalah
memanipulasi atau melakukan perubahan susunan asam nukleat dari DNA (gen) atau
menyelipkan gen baru ke dalam struktur DNA organisme penerima. Gen yang
diselipkan dan organisme penerima dapat berasal dari organisme apa saja.
Misalnya, gen dari sel pankreas manusia yang kemudian diklon dan dimasukkan ke
dalam sel E.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Coli yang bertujuan untuk mendapatkan insulin</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuan Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa genetika pada tanaman mempunyai target
dan tujuan antara lain peningkatan produksi, peningkatan mutu produk supaya
tahan lama dalam penyimpanan pascapanen, peningkatan kandunagn gizi, tahan
terhadap serangan hama dan penyakit tertentu (serangga, bakteri, jamur, atau
virus), tahan terhadap herbisida, sterilitas dan fertilitas serangga jantan
(untuk produksi benih hibrida), toleransi terhadap pendinginan, penundaan
kematangan buah, kualitas aroma dan nutrisi, perubahan pigmentasi.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa Genetika pada
mikroba bertujuan untuk meningkatkan efektivitas kerja mikroba tersebut
(misalnya mikroba untuk fermentasi, pengikat nitrogen udara, meningkatkan
kesuburan tanah, mempercepat proses kompos dan pembuatan makanan ternak,
mikroba prebiotik untuk makanan olahan), dan untuk menghasilkan bahan
obat-obatan dan kosmetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Tahap
Pembuatan Insulin</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
yang masih mempunyai plasmid, plasmidnya dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim
Restriksi Endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Kemudian
gen insulin dari sel pankreas juga dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim restriksi</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Lalu gen
insulin ini di sisipkan pada plasmid bakteri dengan menggunakan enzim ligase
sehingga disebut dengan ADN rekombinan</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Setelah
itu ADN rekombinan itu dimasukkan ke dalam tubuh bakteri baru</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 49.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
dibiarkan berkembang biak dalam wadah fermentasi sehingga dihasilkan insulin.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 49.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Penyebab
Berkembangnya Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya enzim pemotong DNA yaitu enzim
restriksi endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya pengatur ekspresi DNA yang diawali
dengan penemuan operon laktosa pada prokariota</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya perekat biologi yaitu enzim ligase</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya medium untuk memindahkan gen ke dalam
sel mikroorganisme</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span>PENGGUNAAN
REKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TANAMAN</span></strong><strong><span> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISM)</span></strong><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong>Tanaman Transgenik dan Jenisnya</strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Transgenik terdiri dari kata trans yang berarti pindah dan gen yang
berarti pembawa sifat. Jadi transgenik adalah memindahkan gen dari satu makhluk
hidup kemakhluk hidup lainnya, baik dari satu tanaman ketanaman lainnya, atau
dari gen hewan ke tanaman. Transgenik secara definisi adalah <em>the use of
gene manipulation to permanently modify the cell or germ cells of organism</em>
(penggunaan manipulasi gen untuk mengadakan perubahan yang tetap pada sel
makhluk hidup). Teknologi transgenik atau kloning juga dilakukan pada dunia
peternakan, separti domba dolly yang diambil dari gen sel ambing susu domba
yang ditransplantasikan ke sel telurnya sendiri. Pada ikan-ikan teleostei,
menghasilkan ikan yang resisten terhadap pembusukan dan penyakit.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Tanaman transgenik pertama kalinya dibuat tahun 1973 oleh Herbert Boyer
dan Stanley Cohen. Pada tahun 1988 telah ada sekitar 23 tanaman transgenik,
pada tahun 1989 terdapat 30 tanaman, pada tahun 1990 lebih dari 40 tanaman.
Secara sederhana tanaman transgenik dibuat dengan cara mengambil gen-gen
tertentu yang baik pada makhluk hidup lain untuk disisipkan pada tanaman,
penyisipaan gen ini melalui suatu vector (perantara) yang biasanya menggu<span lang="IN">na</span>kan bakteri <em>Agrobacterium
tumefeciens</em> untuk tanaman dikotil atau partikel gen untuk tanaman monokotil,
lalu diinokulasikan pada tanaman target untuk menghasilkan tanaman yang
dikehendaki. <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
Tujuan dari
pengembangan tanaman transgenik ini diantaranya adalah<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->menghambat
pelunakan buah (pada tomat).<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->tahan
terhadap serangan insektisida, herbisida, virus.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan nilai gizi tanaman, dan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan kemampuan tanaman untuk hidup
pada lahan yang ektrem seperti lahan kering, lahan keasaman tinggi dan lahan
dengan kadar garam yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span lang="IN">Melihat potensi manfaat yang
disumbangkan, pendekatan bioteknologi dipandang mampu menyelesaikan
problematika pangan dunia terutama di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang
seperti yang sudah dilakukan di negara-negara maju (Winarno dan Agustina,2007).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Antara tahun 1996-2001 telah terjadi peningkat an yang sangat dramatis
dalam adopsi atau penanaman tanaman GMO (<em>Genetically Modified Organism</em>)
di seluruh dunia. Daerah penanaman global tanaman transgenik meningkat dari
sekitar 1,7 juta ha pada tahun 1996 menjadi 52,6 juta ha pada tahun 2001.
Peningkatan luas tanam GMO tersebut mengindikasikan semakin banyaknya petani
yang menanam tanaman ini baik di negara maju maupun di negara berkembang.
Sebagian besar tanaman transgenik ditanam di negara-negara maju. Amerika
Serikat sampai sekarang merupakan negara produsen terbesar di dunia. Pada tahun
2001, sebanyak 68% atau 35,7 juta ha tanaman transgenik ditanam di Amerika
Serikat.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Sampai saat ini, kedelai merupakan produk GMO terbesar yaitu 33,3 juta ha
atau sekitar 63% dari seluruh tanaman GMO. Kedelai tahan herbisida banyak ditanam
di AS, Argentina, Kanada, Meksiko, Rumania dan Uruguay. Jagung merupakan
tanaman GMO terbesar kedua yang ditanam yaitu seluas 9,8 juta ha sedangkan luas
tanaman kapas GMO yang ditanam adalah sekitar 6,8 juta ha . Sifat yang terdapat
dari tanaman GMO pada umumnya adalah resisten terhadap herbisida, pestisida,
hama serangga dan penyakit serta untuk meningkatkan nilai gizi seperti yang
terlihat di tabel di bawah ini.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin-left: 29.1pt; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>No</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Tujuan
Rekayasa Genetika</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Contoh
Tanaman</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
1<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Menghambat
pematangan dan pelunakan buah<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
2<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan insektisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat,
kentang, jagung<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
3<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan ulat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kapas<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
4<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kentang<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
5<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Squash, Pepaya<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
6<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Jagung, Padi,
Kapas dan Canola<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
7<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Toleran
terhadap herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kedelai,
Canola, Kapas, Jagung,<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
8<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Perbaikan
komposisi nilai gizi<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Canola (high
laurate oil), Kedelai (high oleid acid oil), Padi (high beta-carotene)<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Keunggulan Tanaman Transgenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Tahan Kekeringan</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tahan kekeringan memiliki akar yang sanggup menembus tanah
kering, kutikula yang tebal sehingga mengurangi kehilangan air dan kesanggupan
menyesuaikan diri dengan garam di dalam sel. Tanaman toleran terhadap
kekeringan ditransfer dari gen kapang yang mengeluarngkan enzim <em>trehalose</em>.
Tembakau adalah salah satu tanaman yang dapat toleran terhadap suasana
kekeringan.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Hama</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em> menghasilkan protein toksin sewaktu
terjadi sporulasi atau saat bakteri memberntuk spora. Dalam bentuk spora, berat
toksin mencapai 20% dari berat spora. Apabila larva serangga memakan spora,
maka di dalam alat pencernaan larva serangga tersebut, spora bakteri pecah dan
mengeluarkan toksin. Toksin yang masuk ke dalam membran sel alat pencernaan
larva mengakibatkan sistem pencernaan tidak berfungsi dengan baik dan pakan
tidak dapat diserap sehingga larva mati. Dengan membiakkan <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> kemudian diekstrak dan dimurnikan, makan akan diperoleh
insektisida biologis (biopestisida) dalam bentuk kristal. Pada tahun 1985
dimulai rekayasa gen dari Bacillus thuringiensis dengan kode gen Bt toksin
(Winarno dan Agustina ,2007)<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tembakau untuk pertama kali merupakan tanaman transgenik pertama
yang menggunakan gen BT toksin. Jagung juga telah direkayasa dengan menggunakan
gen Bt toksin, tetapi diintegrasikan dengan plasmid bakteri <em>Salmonella
parathypi</em> yang menghasilkan gen yang menonaktifkan ampisilin. Pada jagung
juga direkayasa adanya resistensi herbisida dan resistensi insektisida sehingga
tanaman transgenik jagung memiliki berbagai jenis resistensi hama tanaman. Gen
Bt toksin juga direkayasa ke tanaman kapas, bahkan <em>multiplegene</em> dapat
direkayasa genetika pada tanaman transgenik. Toksin yang diproduksi dengan
tanaman transgenik menjadi nonaktif apabila terkena sinar matahahari, khususnya
sinar ultraviolet<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Penyakit</span></strong><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Perkembangan yang<span> </span>signifikan
juga terjadi pada usaha untuk memproduksi tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari
serangan virus. Dengan memasukkan gen penyandi tanaman terselubung (<em>coat
protein</em>) <em>Johnson grass mosaic poty virus </em>(JGMV) ke dalam suatu
tanaman, diharapkan tanaman tersebut menjadi resisten apabila diserang oleh
virus yang bersangkutan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Potongan DNA dari JGMV, misalnya daRi protein terselubung dan protein <em>nuclear
inclusion body</em> (Nib) mampu diintegrasikan pada tanaman jagung dan
diharapkan akan menghasilkan tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari serangan virus.
Virus JGMV menyerang beberapa tanaman yang tergolong dalam famili <em>Graminae</em><span> </span>seperti jagung dan sorgum yang menimbulkan
kerugian ekonomi yang cukup besar. Gejala yang ditimbulkan dapat diamati pada
daun<span> </span>berupa mosaik, nekrosa atau
kombinasi keduanya. Akibat serangan virus ini, kerugian para petani menjadi
sangat tinggi atau bahkan tidak panen sama sekali.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Contoh Tanaman yang </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">T</span></strong><strong><span>elah Menggunakan Teknologi Rekayasa</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kedelai
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kedelai merupakan produk <em>Genetically Modified Organis</em><em><span lang="IN">me</span></em> terbesar yaitu sekitar 33,3
juta ha atau sekitar 63% dari total produk <em>GMO</em> yang ada. Dengan
rekayasa genetika, dihasilkan tanaman transgenik yang tahan terhadap hama,
tahan terhadap herbisida dan memiliki kualitas hasil yang tinggi. Saat ini
secara global telah dikomersialkan dua jenis kedelai transgenik yaitu kedelai
toleran herbisida dan kedelai dengan kandungan asam lemak tinggi<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Jagung Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN">Di Amerika Serikat, komoditi
jagung telah mengalami rekayasa genetika melalui teknologi rDNA, yaitu dengan
memanfaatkan gen dari bakteri <em>Bacillus thuringiensis </em>(Bt) untuk
menghindarkan diri dari serangan hama serangga yang disebut <em>corn borer</em>
sehingga dapat meningkatkan hasil panen. </span>Gen <em>Bacillus </em>thuringiensis
yang dipindahkan mampu memproduksi senyawa pestisida yang membunuh larva <em>corn
borer </em>tersebut<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dalam jangka pendek pengembangan jagung transgenik akan meningkatkan
produksi jagung nasional untuk pakan sebesar 145.170 ton dan konsumsi langsung
225.550 ton. Sementara dalam jangka panjang, penurunan harga jagung akan
merangsang kenaikan permintaan jagung baik oleh industri pakan maupun konsumsi
langsung. Bukan hanya itu, dengan meningkatkan produksi jagung Indonesia juga
menekan impor jagung yang kini jumlahnya masih cukup besar. Pada tahun 2006,
impor jagung masih mencapai 1,76 juta<span> </span>ton.<span> </span>Secara tidak langsung, penggunaan tanaman
transgenik juga<span> </span>meningkatkan
kesejahteraan masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kapas
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kapas hasil rekayasa genetika diperkenalkan tahun 1996 di Amerika
Serikat. Kapas yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika dapat menurunkan jumlah
penggunaan insektisida. Diantara gen yang paling banyak digunakan adalah gen <em>cry</em>
(gen toksin)<em> </em>dari <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, gen-gen dari
bakteri untuk sifat toleransi terhadap herbisida, gen yang menunda pemasakan
buah.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Bagi para petani, keuntungan dengan menggunakan kapas transgenik adalah
menekan penggunaan pestisida atau membersihkan gulma tanaman dengan herbisida
secara efektif tanpa mematikan tanaman kapas. Serangga merupakan kendala utama
pada produksi tanaman kapas. Di samping dapat menurunkan produksi, serangan
serangga hama dapat menurunkan kualitas kapas.Saat ini lebih dari 50 persen
areal pertanaman kapas di Amerika merupakan kapas transgenik dan beberapa tahun
ke depan seluruhnya sudah merupakan tanaman kapas transgenik. Demikian juga
dengan Cina dan India yang merupakan produsen kapas terbesar di dunia setelah
Amerika Serikat juga secara intensif telah mengembangkan kapas transgenik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tomat
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Pada pertanian konvensional, tomat harus dipanen ketika masih hijau tapi
belum matang. Hal ini disebabkan akrena tomat cepat lunak setelah matang.
Dengan demikian, tomat memiliki umur simpan yang pendek, cepat busuk dan
penanganan yang sulit. Tomat pada umumnya mengalami hal tersebut karena
memiliki gen yang menyebabkan buah tomat mudah lembek. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
enzim poligalakturonase yang berfungsi mempercepat degradasi pektin.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tomat transgenik memiliki suatu gen khusus yang disebut <em>antisenescens
</em>yang memperlambat proses pematangan (ripening) dengan cara memperlambat
sintesa enzim poligalakturonase sehungga menunda pelunakan tomat. Dengan
mengurangi produksi enzim poligalakturonase akan dapat diperbaiki sifat-sifat
pemrosesan tomat. Varietas baru tersebut dibiarkan matang di bagian batang
tanamannya untuk waktu yang lebih lama sebelum dipanen. Bila dibandingkan
dengan generasi tomat sebelumnya, tomat jenis baru telah mengalami perubahan
genetika, tahan terhadap penanganan dan ditransportasi lebih baik, dan
kemungkinan pecah atau rusak selama pemrosesan lebih sedikit.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kentang
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Mulai pada tanggal 15 Mei 1995, pemerintah Amerika <span lang="IN">men</span>yetujui untuk mengomersialkan kentang
hasil rekayasas genetika yang disebut Monsanto sebagai perusahaan penunjang
dengan sebutan kentang “<em>New Leaf</em>”.<span> </span>Jenis<span> </span>kentang hybrid tersebut mengandung<span> </span>materi genetic yang<span> </span>memnungkinkan kentang mampu melindungi dirinya terhadap serangan <em>Colorado
potato beetle</em>.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dengan demikian tanaman tersebut dapat menghindarkan diri dari penggunaan
pestisida kimia yang digunakan pada kentang tersebut. Selain resisten terhadap
serangan hama, kentang transgenik ini juga memiliki komposisi zat gizi yang
lebih baik bila dibandingkan dengan kentang pada umumnya. Hama <em>beetle </em>Colorado
merupakan suatu jenis serangga yang paling destruktif untuk komoditi kentang di
Amerika dan mampu menghancurkan sampai 85% produksi tahunan kentang bila tidak
ditanggulangi dengan baik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Daya perlindungan kentang transgenik tersebut berasal dari bakteri <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> sehingga kentang transgenik ini disebut juga dengan kentang
Bt.<span> </span>Sehingga diharapkan melalui
kentang transgenik ini akan membantu suplai kentang yang berkesinambungan,
sehat dan dalam jangkauan daya beli masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Berbagai keunggulan lain dari tanaman yang diperoleh dengan teknik
rekayasa genetika adalah sebagai berikut<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Menghasilkan jenis tanaman baru yang tahan
terhadap kondisi pertumbuhan yang keras seperti lahan kering, lahan yang
berkadar garam tinggi dan suhu lingkungan yang ekstrim. Bila berhasil dilakukan
modifikasi genetika pada tanaman, maka dihasilkan asam lemak linoleat yang
tinggi yang menyebabkan mampu hidup dengan baik pada suhu dingin dan beku.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Toleran terhadap herbisida yang ramah lingkungan
yang dapat mengganggu gulma, tetapi tidak mengganggu tanaman itu sendiri.
Contoh kedelai yang tahan herbisida dapat mempertahankan kondisi bebas gulamnya
hanya dengan separuh dari jumlah herbisida yang digunakan secara normal<span lang="IN">.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Meningkatkan sifat-sifat fungsional yang
dikehendaki, seperti mereduksi sifat atau daya alergi (toksisitas), menghambat
pematangan buah, kadar pati yang lebih tinggi serta daya simpan yang lebih
panjang. Misalnya, kentang yang telah mengalami teknologi rDNA, kadar patinya
menjadi lebih tinggi sehingga akan menyerap sedikit minyak bila goreng (<em>deep
fried</em>). Dengan demikian akan menghasilkan kentang goreng dengan kadar
lemak yang lebih rendah.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Sifat-sifat yang lebih dikehendaki, misalnya
kadar protein atau lemak dan meningkatnya kadar fitokimia dan kandungan gizi.
Kekurangan gizi saat ini telah melanda banyak negara di dunia terutama negara
miskin dan negara berkembang. Kekurangan gizi yang nyata adalah kekurangan
vitamin A, yodium, besi dan zink. Untuk menanggulanginya, dapat dilakukan
dengan menyisipkan den khusus yang mampu meningkatkan senyata-senyawa tersebut
dalam tanaman. Contohnya telah dikembangkan beras yang memiliki kandungan
betakaroten dan besi sehingga mampu menolong orang yang mengalami<span> </span>defisiensi senyawa tersebut dan mencegah
kekurangan gizi pada masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
Penggunaan rekayasa genetika khususnya pada tanaman tidak
terlepas dari pro kontra mengenai penggunaan teknologi tersebut. Berikut ini
hanya disebutkan berbagai pandangan yang setuju terhadap tanaman transgenik
karena mengacu pada judul yang disajikan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span lang="IN">Manfaat rekayasa
genetika :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Tanaman transgenik memiliki kualitas yang
lebih tinggi dibanding degan tanaman konvensional, memiliki kandungan nutrisi
yang lebih tinggi, tahan hama, tahan cuaca sehingga penanaman komoditas
tersebut dapat memenuhi kebutuhan pangan secara capat dan menghemat devisa
akibat penghematan pemakaian pestisida atau bahan kimia serta memiliki
produktivitas yang lebih tinggi.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Teknik
rekayasa genetika sama dengan pemuliaan tanaman yaitu memperbaiki sifat-sifat
tanaman dengan menambah sifat-sifat ketahanan terhadap cengkeraman hama maupun
lingkungan yang kurang menguntungkan sehingga tanaman transgenik memiliki
kualitas lebih baik dari tanaman konvensional serta bukan hal yang baru karena
sudah lama dilakukan tetapi tidak disadari oleh masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Mengurangi dampak kerusakan dan pencemaran
lingkungan, misalnya tanaman transgenik tidak perlu pupuk kimia dan pestisida
sehingga tanaman transgenik dapat membantu upaya perbaikan lingkungan<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dampak-Dampak Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap lingkungan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.35pt;">
<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pola
tanam produk pertanian di Indonesia areal kecil dikelilingi oleh berbagai
gulma, dengan adanya sifat <i>cross-polination</i> dari GMO maka dikhawatirkan
akan bermunculan gulma baru yang lebih resisten.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tanpa membakar sisa tanaman GMO akan memusnahkan jasad renik
dalam tanah bekas penanaman tanaman GMO akibat sifat dari sisa GMO yang
bersifat toksis. Jangka panjang akan merubah struktur dan tekstur tanah.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat tanaman GMO yang dapat membunuh
larva kupu-kupu, akan memberikan kekhawatiran punahnya kupu-kupu di Sulawesi
Selatan. Seperti diketahui Sulawesi Selatan termasyhur dengan kupu-kupunya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Satu-satunya gangguan kesehatan akibat
penggunaan hasil rekayasa genetika ialah reaksi alergis yang sudah dapat
dibuktikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="IN">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PENUTUP</span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Simpulan</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Rekayasa genetika adalah penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetika</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk kepentingan manusia.
Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_hewan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pemuliaan hewan</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_tanaman" title="Pemuliaan tanaman"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">
melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian pula penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mutasi</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> buatan tanpa target dapat
pula dimasukkan.</span><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> <span lang="IN">Walaupun
demikian, masyarakat ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih
sempit, yaitu penerapan teknik-teknik </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_molekular"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biologi
molekular</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk mengubah susunan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen" title="Gen"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> dalam </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">kromosom</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau mengubah sistem </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspresi_genetik" title="Ekspresi genetik"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ekspresi genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> yang
diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span lang="IN">Berbagai contoh
tanaman yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika adalah kedelai, jagung, kapas,
tomat dan kentang. Di mana tersebut memiliki kelebihan tersendiri bila
dibandingkan dengan tanaman sejenis seperti tahan terhadap hama dan penyakit
dan memiliki komposisi gizi yang lebih baik. Walaupun masih menjadi kontroversi
diantara berbagai kalangan, khususnya pemerintah Indonesia setidaknya memiliki
satu solusi yang pasti untuk menghadapi krisis pangan yang menjadi ancaman saat
ini yaitu penggunaan rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 63.8pt;">
<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Setelah melakukan pengkajian penulis dapat menyimpulkan :</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika adalah suatu kemajuan dibidang IPTEK yang
sangat bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan tingkat fungsional dari suatu makhluk
hidup atau organism</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78.0pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika sangat baik digunakan asalkan masih dalam
batas kewajaran manusia yang masih bias dimengerti dengan akal pikiran manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78.0pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dapat digunakan untuk memperbaiki
kerusakan dan merupakan alat untuk melakukan pembaharuan yang sangat efisien
jika digunakan dengan tepat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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<strong>DAFTAR
PUSTAKA</strong><strong><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2006.www.biotek.lipi.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=artic
&id=27:Tanaman%20Transgenik&catid=8&Itemid=53<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2008.http://bioteknews.blogspot.com/2008/01/apa-benar-kedelai-transgenik-berbahaya.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.
http://www.hupelita.com/baca.php?id=57657</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.http://moanbb.blogspot.com/2008/03/kapas-n-siapa-takut.html</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Buckle <em>et
all </em>.2007. Ilmu Pangan. UI Press : Jakarta</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Winarno,FG
.Agustina,W.2007. Pengantar Bioteknologi (<em>Revised Edition</em>). MBrio
Press :Jakarta</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi%20Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi</span><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
http://agrifm.blogspot.com/2007/12/mikroba-penyelamat-alami-global-warming.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-52201248185072583182012-10-01T07:35:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:41:02.991-07:00<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Latar Belakang Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perkembangan IPTEK adalah sebuah fenomena dan fakta yang
jelas dan pasti terjadi sebagai sebuah proses yang berlangsung ecara
terus-menerus bagi kehidupan global yang juga yang tidak mengenal istilah
berhenti. Hal ini senada dengan diungkapkannya oleh Ibnu Khaldum dalam
mukaddimahnya “Tidak ada masyarakat yang tidak berubah” dengan demikian dalam
merespon perkembangan IPTEK, menghenrikan jalannya perubahan adalah pekerjaan
yang mustahil untuk dilakukan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa Genetika akhir-akhir ini mengalami perkembangan
yang cukup drastis dan meminta perhatian yang cukup serius dikalangan manusia
pada umumnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebab
selain kontribusinya terhadap ilmu pengetahuan dan </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">su</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mber manfaat bagi kelangsungan hidup
manusia dan lingkungan, juga memunculkan persoalan-persoalan yang mendasar</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang perlu dicermati lebih serius guna
mengawal perkembangan bioteknologi di masa mendatang</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">elalui rekayasa genetika dan produk-produk yang
dihasilkannya telah menantang gagasan tradisional mengenai hakekat kehidupan
dan memunculkan berbagai persoalan, pertanyaan-pertanyaan etis, dan tingkat
kekhawatiran manusia yang sangat mencemaskan terhadap seluruh perkembangan dan
hasil rekayasa genetika tersebut.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jika dianalisa kemajuan dan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan
dan teknologi yang telah dicapai dewasa ini, seharusnya semakin memberi
kepuasan untuk hidup sehingga menghasilkan kehidupan yang lebih baik daripada
sebelumnya. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Akan
tetapi, kenyataan taklah demikian, terkadang penemuan ini dijadikan ajang
pemanfaatan makhluk hidup.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Banyak sekali penemuan genetika yang tidak masuk akal yang</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menyebabkan spesies baru yang tercipta
kehilangan nilai gunanya bagi kehidupan.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rumusan Masalah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa yang dimaksud rekayasa genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa tujuan dilakukannya rakayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bagaimana tahap pembuatan insulin?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Bagaimana
penggunaan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">rekayasa</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">genetika</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">pada tanaman</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN"> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGAN</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">ISME) ?</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Tujuan Penulisan</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk mengetahui apa itu rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Untuk memahami tujuan dilakukannya rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi tahapa pembuatan insulin.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penyebab berkembangnya rekayasa
genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Mengidentifikasi penggunaan rekayasa genetika pada
tanaman (Genetically Medified Organisme).<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Metode Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%;">Penulisan Makalah ini dilakukan dengan metoda kajian
pustaka dan pengumpulan sumber-sumber dari berbagai media informasi.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">RAKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TUMBUHAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span> </span>Pengertian
Rekayasa Genetika<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika disebut juga ilmu keturunan, berasal dari kata
genos (bahasa latin), artinya suku bangsa-bangsa atau asal-usul. Secara
“Etimologi”kata genetika berasal dari kata genos dalam bahasa latin, yang
berarti asal mula kejadian. Namun, genetika bukanlah ilmu tentang asal mula
kejadian meskipun pada batas-batas tertentu memang ada kaitannya dengan hal itu
juga. Gen</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tika adalah ilmu yang mempelajari seluk beluk alih informasi
hayati dari generasi kegenerasi. Oleh karena cara berlangsungnya alih informasi
hayati tersebut mendasari adanya perbedaan dan persamaan sifat diantara
individu organisme, maka dengan singkat dapat pula dikatakan bahwa genetika
adalah ilmu tentang pewarisan sifat .Dalam ilmu ini dipelajari bagaimana sifat
keturunan (hereditas) itu diwariskan kepada anak cucu, serta variasi yang
mungkin timbul didalamnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.8pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genetika perlu dipelajari, agar kita
dapat mengetahui sifat-sifat keturunan kita sendiri serta setiap makhuk hidup
yang berada dilingkungan kita. kita sebagai manusia tidak hidup autonom dan
terinsolir dari makhuk lain sekitar kita tapi kita menjalin ekosistem dengan
mereka. karena itu selain kita harus mengetahui sifat-sifat menurun dalam tubuh
kita, juga pada tumbuhan dan hewan. </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lagi pula prinsip-prins</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">i</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">p genetika itu dapat disebut sama saja
bagi seluruh makluk. Karena manusia sulit dipakai sebagai objek atau bahan
percobaan genetis, kita</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mempelajari hukum-hukumnya lewat sifat menurun yang
terkandung</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dalam tubuh-tumbuhan dan hewan sekitar. </span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dalam arti paling luas adalah penerapan
genetika untuk kepentingan manusia. Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan pemuliaaan
hewan atau tanaman melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian
pula penerapan mutasi buatan tanpa target dapat pula dimasukkan. Masyarakat
ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih sempit, yaitu
penerapan teknik-teknik genetika molekular untuk mengubah susunan genetik dalam
kromosom atau mengubah sistem ekspresi genetic</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika merupakan
transplantasi atau pencangkokan satu gen ke gen lainnya dimana dapat bersifat
antar gen dan dapat pula lintas gen sehingga mampu menghasilkan produk.
Rekayasa genetika juga diartikan sebagai perpindahan gen.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Teknologi Rekayasa Genetika merupakan
inti dari bioteknologi didifinisikan sebagai teknik in-vitro asam nukleat,
termasuk DNA rekombinan dan injeksi langsung DNA ke dalam sel atau organel;
atau fusi sel di luar keluarga taksonomi; yang dapat menembus rintangan
reproduksi dan rekombinasi alami, dan bukan teknik yang digunakan dalam
pemuliaan dan seleksi tradisional.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prinsip dasar teknologi rekayasa genetika adalah
memanipulasi atau melakukan perubahan susunan asam nukleat dari DNA (gen) atau
menyelipkan gen baru ke dalam struktur DNA organisme penerima. Gen yang
diselipkan dan organisme penerima dapat berasal dari organisme apa saja.
Misalnya, gen dari sel pankreas manusia yang kemudian diklon dan dimasukkan ke
dalam sel E.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Coli yang bertujuan untuk mendapatkan insulin</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuan Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa genetika pada tanaman mempunyai target
dan tujuan antara lain peningkatan produksi, peningkatan mutu produk supaya
tahan lama dalam penyimpanan pascapanen, peningkatan kandunagn gizi, tahan
terhadap serangan hama dan penyakit tertentu (serangga, bakteri, jamur, atau
virus), tahan terhadap herbisida, sterilitas dan fertilitas serangga jantan
(untuk produksi benih hibrida), toleransi terhadap pendinginan, penundaan
kematangan buah, kualitas aroma dan nutrisi, perubahan pigmentasi.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rekayasa Genetika pada
mikroba bertujuan untuk meningkatkan efektivitas kerja mikroba tersebut
(misalnya mikroba untuk fermentasi, pengikat nitrogen udara, meningkatkan
kesuburan tanah, mempercepat proses kompos dan pembuatan makanan ternak,
mikroba prebiotik untuk makanan olahan), dan untuk menghasilkan bahan
obat-obatan dan kosmetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Tahap
Pembuatan Insulin</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
yang masih mempunyai plasmid, plasmidnya dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim
Restriksi Endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Kemudian
gen insulin dari sel pankreas juga dipotong dengan menggunakan enzim restriksi</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 49.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Lalu gen
insulin ini di sisipkan pada plasmid bakteri dengan menggunakan enzim ligase
sehingga disebut dengan ADN rekombinan</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Setelah
itu ADN rekombinan itu dimasukkan ke dalam tubuh bakteri baru</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 49.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Bakteri
dibiarkan berkembang biak dalam wadah fermentasi sehingga dihasilkan insulin.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Penyebab
Berkembangnya Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya enzim pemotong DNA yaitu enzim
restriksi endonuklease</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya pengatur ekspresi DNA yang diawali
dengan penemuan operon laktosa pada prokariota</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya perekat biologi yaitu enzim ligase</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ditemukannya medium untuk memindahkan gen ke dalam
sel mikroorganisme</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span>PENGGUNAAN
REKAYASA GENETIKA PADA TANAMAN</span></strong><strong><span> </span></strong><strong><span>(GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISM)</span></strong><strong><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong>Tanaman Transgenik dan Jenisnya</strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Transgenik terdiri dari kata trans yang berarti pindah dan gen yang
berarti pembawa sifat. Jadi transgenik adalah memindahkan gen dari satu makhluk
hidup kemakhluk hidup lainnya, baik dari satu tanaman ketanaman lainnya, atau
dari gen hewan ke tanaman. Transgenik secara definisi adalah <em>the use of
gene manipulation to permanently modify the cell or germ cells of organism</em>
(penggunaan manipulasi gen untuk mengadakan perubahan yang tetap pada sel
makhluk hidup). Teknologi transgenik atau kloning juga dilakukan pada dunia
peternakan, separti domba dolly yang diambil dari gen sel ambing susu domba
yang ditransplantasikan ke sel telurnya sendiri. Pada ikan-ikan teleostei,
menghasilkan ikan yang resisten terhadap pembusukan dan penyakit.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Tanaman transgenik pertama kalinya dibuat tahun 1973 oleh Herbert Boyer
dan Stanley Cohen. Pada tahun 1988 telah ada sekitar 23 tanaman transgenik,
pada tahun 1989 terdapat 30 tanaman, pada tahun 1990 lebih dari 40 tanaman.
Secara sederhana tanaman transgenik dibuat dengan cara mengambil gen-gen
tertentu yang baik pada makhluk hidup lain untuk disisipkan pada tanaman,
penyisipaan gen ini melalui suatu vector (perantara) yang biasanya menggu<span lang="IN">na</span>kan bakteri <em>Agrobacterium
tumefeciens</em> untuk tanaman dikotil atau partikel gen untuk tanaman monokotil,
lalu diinokulasikan pada tanaman target untuk menghasilkan tanaman yang
dikehendaki. <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;">
Tujuan dari
pengembangan tanaman transgenik ini diantaranya adalah<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->menghambat
pelunakan buah (pada tomat).<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->tahan
terhadap serangan insektisida, herbisida, virus.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan nilai gizi tanaman, dan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span>§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">meningkatkan kemampuan tanaman untuk hidup
pada lahan yang ektrem seperti lahan kering, lahan keasaman tinggi dan lahan
dengan kadar garam yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span lang="IN">Melihat potensi manfaat yang
disumbangkan, pendekatan bioteknologi dipandang mampu menyelesaikan
problematika pangan dunia terutama di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang
seperti yang sudah dilakukan di negara-negara maju (Winarno dan Agustina,2007).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Antara tahun 1996-2001 telah terjadi peningkat an yang sangat dramatis
dalam adopsi atau penanaman tanaman GMO (<em>Genetically Modified Organism</em>)
di seluruh dunia. Daerah penanaman global tanaman transgenik meningkat dari
sekitar 1,7 juta ha pada tahun 1996 menjadi 52,6 juta ha pada tahun 2001.
Peningkatan luas tanam GMO tersebut mengindikasikan semakin banyaknya petani
yang menanam tanaman ini baik di negara maju maupun di negara berkembang.
Sebagian besar tanaman transgenik ditanam di negara-negara maju. Amerika
Serikat sampai sekarang merupakan negara produsen terbesar di dunia. Pada tahun
2001, sebanyak 68% atau 35,7 juta ha tanaman transgenik ditanam di Amerika
Serikat.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
Sampai saat ini, kedelai merupakan produk GMO terbesar yaitu 33,3 juta ha
atau sekitar 63% dari seluruh tanaman GMO. Kedelai tahan herbisida banyak ditanam
di AS, Argentina, Kanada, Meksiko, Rumania dan Uruguay. Jagung merupakan
tanaman GMO terbesar kedua yang ditanam yaitu seluas 9,8 juta ha sedangkan luas
tanaman kapas GMO yang ditanam adalah sekitar 6,8 juta ha . Sifat yang terdapat
dari tanaman GMO pada umumnya adalah resisten terhadap herbisida, pestisida,
hama serangga dan penyakit serta untuk meningkatkan nilai gizi seperti yang
terlihat di tabel di bawah ini.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin-left: 29.1pt; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>No</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Tujuan
Rekayasa Genetika</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b>Contoh
Tanaman</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
1<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Menghambat
pematangan dan pelunakan buah<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
2<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan insektisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tomat,
kentang, jagung<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
3<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
serangan ulat<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kapas<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
4<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kentang<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
5<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
virus<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Squash, Pepaya<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
6<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Tahan terhadap
insekta dan herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Jagung, Padi,
Kapas dan Canola<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
7<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Toleran
terhadap herbisida<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Kedelai,
Canola, Kapas, Jagung,<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 35.45pt;" valign="top" width="47">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
8<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 170.1pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Perbaikan
komposisi nilai gizi<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 196.25pt;" valign="top" width="262">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Canola (high
laurate oil), Kedelai (high oleid acid oil), Padi (high beta-carotene)<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Keunggulan Tanaman Transgenik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Tahan Kekeringan</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tahan kekeringan memiliki akar yang sanggup menembus tanah
kering, kutikula yang tebal sehingga mengurangi kehilangan air dan kesanggupan
menyesuaikan diri dengan garam di dalam sel. Tanaman toleran terhadap
kekeringan ditransfer dari gen kapang yang mengeluarngkan enzim <em>trehalose</em>.
Tembakau adalah salah satu tanaman yang dapat toleran terhadap suasana
kekeringan.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Hama</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em> menghasilkan protein toksin sewaktu
terjadi sporulasi atau saat bakteri memberntuk spora. Dalam bentuk spora, berat
toksin mencapai 20% dari berat spora. Apabila larva serangga memakan spora,
maka di dalam alat pencernaan larva serangga tersebut, spora bakteri pecah dan
mengeluarkan toksin. Toksin yang masuk ke dalam membran sel alat pencernaan
larva mengakibatkan sistem pencernaan tidak berfungsi dengan baik dan pakan
tidak dapat diserap sehingga larva mati. Dengan membiakkan <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> kemudian diekstrak dan dimurnikan, makan akan diperoleh
insektisida biologis (biopestisida) dalam bentuk kristal. Pada tahun 1985
dimulai rekayasa gen dari Bacillus thuringiensis dengan kode gen Bt toksin
(Winarno dan Agustina ,2007)<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tanaman tembakau untuk pertama kali merupakan tanaman transgenik pertama
yang menggunakan gen BT toksin. Jagung juga telah direkayasa dengan menggunakan
gen Bt toksin, tetapi diintegrasikan dengan plasmid bakteri <em>Salmonella
parathypi</em> yang menghasilkan gen yang menonaktifkan ampisilin. Pada jagung
juga direkayasa adanya resistensi herbisida dan resistensi insektisida sehingga
tanaman transgenik jagung memiliki berbagai jenis resistensi hama tanaman. Gen
Bt toksin juga direkayasa ke tanaman kapas, bahkan <em>multiplegene</em> dapat
direkayasa genetika pada tanaman transgenik. Toksin yang diproduksi dengan
tanaman transgenik menjadi nonaktif apabila terkena sinar matahahari, khususnya
sinar ultraviolet<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tanaman
Transgenik Resisten Penyakit</span></strong><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Perkembangan yang<span> </span>signifikan
juga terjadi pada usaha untuk memproduksi tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari
serangan virus. Dengan memasukkan gen penyandi tanaman terselubung (<em>coat
protein</em>) <em>Johnson grass mosaic poty virus </em>(JGMV) ke dalam suatu
tanaman, diharapkan tanaman tersebut menjadi resisten apabila diserang oleh
virus yang bersangkutan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Potongan DNA dari JGMV, misalnya daRi protein terselubung dan protein <em>nuclear
inclusion body</em> (Nib) mampu diintegrasikan pada tanaman jagung dan
diharapkan akan menghasilkan tanaman transgenik yang bebas dari serangan virus.
Virus JGMV menyerang beberapa tanaman yang tergolong dalam famili <em>Graminae</em><span> </span>seperti jagung dan sorgum yang menimbulkan
kerugian ekonomi yang cukup besar. Gejala yang ditimbulkan dapat diamati pada
daun<span> </span>berupa mosaik, nekrosa atau
kombinasi keduanya. Akibat serangan virus ini, kerugian para petani menjadi
sangat tinggi atau bahkan tidak panen sama sekali.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Contoh Tanaman yang </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN">T</span></strong><strong><span>elah Menggunakan Teknologi Rekayasa</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kedelai
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kedelai merupakan produk <em>Genetically Modified Organis</em><em><span lang="IN">me</span></em> terbesar yaitu sekitar 33,3
juta ha atau sekitar 63% dari total produk <em>GMO</em> yang ada. Dengan
rekayasa genetika, dihasilkan tanaman transgenik yang tahan terhadap hama,
tahan terhadap herbisida dan memiliki kualitas hasil yang tinggi. Saat ini
secara global telah dikomersialkan dua jenis kedelai transgenik yaitu kedelai
toleran herbisida dan kedelai dengan kandungan asam lemak tinggi<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="IN">Jagung Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN">Di Amerika Serikat, komoditi
jagung telah mengalami rekayasa genetika melalui teknologi rDNA, yaitu dengan
memanfaatkan gen dari bakteri <em>Bacillus thuringiensis </em>(Bt) untuk
menghindarkan diri dari serangan hama serangga yang disebut <em>corn borer</em>
sehingga dapat meningkatkan hasil panen. </span>Gen <em>Bacillus </em>thuringiensis
yang dipindahkan mampu memproduksi senyawa pestisida yang membunuh larva <em>corn
borer </em>tersebut<b><span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dalam jangka pendek pengembangan jagung transgenik akan meningkatkan
produksi jagung nasional untuk pakan sebesar 145.170 ton dan konsumsi langsung
225.550 ton. Sementara dalam jangka panjang, penurunan harga jagung akan
merangsang kenaikan permintaan jagung baik oleh industri pakan maupun konsumsi
langsung. Bukan hanya itu, dengan meningkatkan produksi jagung Indonesia juga
menekan impor jagung yang kini jumlahnya masih cukup besar. Pada tahun 2006,
impor jagung masih mencapai 1,76 juta<span> </span>ton.<span> </span>Secara tidak langsung, penggunaan tanaman
transgenik juga<span> </span>meningkatkan
kesejahteraan masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kapas
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Kapas hasil rekayasa genetika diperkenalkan tahun 1996 di Amerika
Serikat. Kapas yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika dapat menurunkan jumlah
penggunaan insektisida. Diantara gen yang paling banyak digunakan adalah gen <em>cry</em>
(gen toksin)<em> </em>dari <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, gen-gen dari
bakteri untuk sifat toleransi terhadap herbisida, gen yang menunda pemasakan
buah.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Bagi para petani, keuntungan dengan menggunakan kapas transgenik adalah
menekan penggunaan pestisida atau membersihkan gulma tanaman dengan herbisida
secara efektif tanpa mematikan tanaman kapas. Serangga merupakan kendala utama
pada produksi tanaman kapas. Di samping dapat menurunkan produksi, serangan
serangga hama dapat menurunkan kualitas kapas.Saat ini lebih dari 50 persen
areal pertanaman kapas di Amerika merupakan kapas transgenik dan beberapa tahun
ke depan seluruhnya sudah merupakan tanaman kapas transgenik. Demikian juga
dengan Cina dan India yang merupakan produsen kapas terbesar di dunia setelah
Amerika Serikat juga secara intensif telah mengembangkan kapas transgenik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Tomat
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Pada pertanian konvensional, tomat harus dipanen ketika masih hijau tapi
belum matang. Hal ini disebabkan akrena tomat cepat lunak setelah matang.
Dengan demikian, tomat memiliki umur simpan yang pendek, cepat busuk dan
penanganan yang sulit. Tomat pada umumnya mengalami hal tersebut karena
memiliki gen yang menyebabkan buah tomat mudah lembek. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
enzim poligalakturonase yang berfungsi mempercepat degradasi pektin.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Tomat transgenik memiliki suatu gen khusus yang disebut <em>antisenescens
</em>yang memperlambat proses pematangan (ripening) dengan cara memperlambat
sintesa enzim poligalakturonase sehungga menunda pelunakan tomat. Dengan
mengurangi produksi enzim poligalakturonase akan dapat diperbaiki sifat-sifat
pemrosesan tomat. Varietas baru tersebut dibiarkan matang di bagian batang
tanamannya untuk waktu yang lebih lama sebelum dipanen. Bila dibandingkan
dengan generasi tomat sebelumnya, tomat jenis baru telah mengalami perubahan
genetika, tahan terhadap penanganan dan ditransportasi lebih baik, dan
kemungkinan pecah atau rusak selama pemrosesan lebih sedikit.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span>Kentang
Transgenik</span></strong><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Mulai pada tanggal 15 Mei 1995, pemerintah Amerika <span lang="IN">men</span>yetujui untuk mengomersialkan kentang
hasil rekayasas genetika yang disebut Monsanto sebagai perusahaan penunjang
dengan sebutan kentang “<em>New Leaf</em>”.<span> </span>Jenis<span> </span>kentang hybrid tersebut mengandung<span> </span>materi genetic yang<span> </span>memnungkinkan kentang mampu melindungi dirinya terhadap serangan <em>Colorado
potato beetle</em>.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Dengan demikian tanaman tersebut dapat menghindarkan diri dari penggunaan
pestisida kimia yang digunakan pada kentang tersebut. Selain resisten terhadap
serangan hama, kentang transgenik ini juga memiliki komposisi zat gizi yang
lebih baik bila dibandingkan dengan kentang pada umumnya. Hama <em>beetle </em>Colorado
merupakan suatu jenis serangga yang paling destruktif untuk komoditi kentang di
Amerika dan mampu menghancurkan sampai 85% produksi tahunan kentang bila tidak
ditanggulangi dengan baik.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Daya perlindungan kentang transgenik tersebut berasal dari bakteri <em>Bacillus
thuringiensis</em> sehingga kentang transgenik ini disebut juga dengan kentang
Bt.<span> </span>Sehingga diharapkan melalui
kentang transgenik ini akan membantu suplai kentang yang berkesinambungan,
sehat dan dalam jangkauan daya beli masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Berbagai keunggulan lain dari tanaman yang diperoleh dengan teknik
rekayasa genetika adalah sebagai berikut<span lang="IN"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Menghasilkan jenis tanaman baru yang tahan
terhadap kondisi pertumbuhan yang keras seperti lahan kering, lahan yang
berkadar garam tinggi dan suhu lingkungan yang ekstrim. Bila berhasil dilakukan
modifikasi genetika pada tanaman, maka dihasilkan asam lemak linoleat yang
tinggi yang menyebabkan mampu hidup dengan baik pada suhu dingin dan beku.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Toleran terhadap herbisida yang ramah lingkungan
yang dapat mengganggu gulma, tetapi tidak mengganggu tanaman itu sendiri.
Contoh kedelai yang tahan herbisida dapat mempertahankan kondisi bebas gulamnya
hanya dengan separuh dari jumlah herbisida yang digunakan secara normal<span lang="IN">.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Meningkatkan sifat-sifat fungsional yang
dikehendaki, seperti mereduksi sifat atau daya alergi (toksisitas), menghambat
pematangan buah, kadar pati yang lebih tinggi serta daya simpan yang lebih
panjang. Misalnya, kentang yang telah mengalami teknologi rDNA, kadar patinya
menjadi lebih tinggi sehingga akan menyerap sedikit minyak bila goreng (<em>deep
fried</em>). Dengan demikian akan menghasilkan kentang goreng dengan kadar
lemak yang lebih rendah.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 85.05pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Sifat-sifat yang lebih dikehendaki, misalnya
kadar protein atau lemak dan meningkatnya kadar fitokimia dan kandungan gizi.
Kekurangan gizi saat ini telah melanda banyak negara di dunia terutama negara
miskin dan negara berkembang. Kekurangan gizi yang nyata adalah kekurangan
vitamin A, yodium, besi dan zink. Untuk menanggulanginya, dapat dilakukan
dengan menyisipkan den khusus yang mampu meningkatkan senyata-senyawa tersebut
dalam tanaman. Contohnya telah dikembangkan beras yang memiliki kandungan
betakaroten dan besi sehingga mampu menolong orang yang mengalami<span> </span>defisiensi senyawa tersebut dan mencegah
kekurangan gizi pada masyarakat.<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Penggunaan rekayasa genetika khususnya pada tanaman tidak
terlepas dari pro kontra mengenai penggunaan teknologi tersebut. Berikut ini
hanya disebutkan berbagai pandangan yang setuju terhadap tanaman transgenik
karena mengacu pada judul yang disajikan.<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Manfaat rekayasa
genetika :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Tanaman transgenik memiliki kualitas yang
lebih tinggi dibanding degan tanaman konvensional, memiliki kandungan nutrisi
yang lebih tinggi, tahan hama, tahan cuaca sehingga penanaman komoditas
tersebut dapat memenuhi kebutuhan pangan secara capat dan menghemat devisa
akibat penghematan pemakaian pestisida atau bahan kimia serta memiliki
produktivitas yang lebih tinggi.</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN">Teknik
rekayasa genetika sama dengan pemuliaan tanaman yaitu memperbaiki sifat-sifat
tanaman dengan menambah sifat-sifat ketahanan terhadap cengkeraman hama maupun
lingkungan yang kurang menguntungkan sehingga tanaman transgenik memiliki
kualitas lebih baik dari tanaman konvensional serta bukan hal yang baru karena
sudah lama dilakukan tetapi tidak disadari oleh masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN"><span>c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Mengurangi dampak kerusakan dan pencemaran
lingkungan, misalnya tanaman transgenik tidak perlu pupuk kimia dan pestisida
sehingga tanaman transgenik dapat membantu upaya perbaikan lingkungan<span lang="IN">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dampak-Dampak Rekayasa Genetika</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap lingkungan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pola
tanam produk pertanian di Indonesia areal kecil dikelilingi oleh berbagai
gulma, dengan adanya sifat <i>cross-polination</i> dari GMO maka dikhawatirkan
akan bermunculan gulma baru yang lebih resisten.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tanpa membakar sisa tanaman GMO akan memusnahkan jasad renik
dalam tanah bekas penanaman tanaman GMO akibat sifat dari sisa GMO yang
bersifat toksis. Jangka panjang akan merubah struktur dan tekstur tanah.</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sifat tanaman GMO yang dapat membunuh
larva kupu-kupu, akan memberikan kekhawatiran punahnya kupu-kupu di Sulawesi
Selatan. Seperti diketahui Sulawesi Selatan termasyhur dengan kupu-kupunya.</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gangguan terhadap kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.35pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Satu-satunya gangguan kesehatan akibat
penggunaan hasil rekayasa genetika ialah reaksi alergis yang sudah dapat
dibuktikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">PENUTUP</span></b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span><span>A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">Simpulan</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Rekayasa genetika adalah penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetika</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk kepentingan manusia.
Dengan pengertian ini kegiatan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_hewan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pemuliaan hewan</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemuliaan_tanaman" title="Pemuliaan tanaman"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">
melalui seleksi dalam populasi dapat dimasukkan. Demikian pula penerapan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mutasi</span></a><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> buatan tanpa target dapat
pula dimasukkan.</span><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> <span lang="IN">Walaupun
demikian, masyarakat ilmiah sekarang lebih bersepakat dengan batasan yang lebih
sempit, yaitu penerapan teknik-teknik </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_molekular"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biologi
molekular</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> untuk mengubah susunan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen" title="Gen"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> dalam </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">kromosom</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> atau mengubah sistem </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspresi_genetik" title="Ekspresi genetik"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ekspresi genetik</span></a><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> yang
diarahkan pada kemanfaatan tertentu.</span><b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Berbagai contoh
tanaman yang telah mengalami rekayasa genetika adalah kedelai, jagung, kapas,
tomat dan kentang. Di mana tersebut memiliki kelebihan tersendiri bila
dibandingkan dengan tanaman sejenis seperti tahan terhadap hama dan penyakit
dan memiliki komposisi gizi yang lebih baik. Walaupun masih menjadi kontroversi
diantara berbagai kalangan, khususnya pemerintah Indonesia setidaknya memiliki
satu solusi yang pasti untuk menghadapi krisis pangan yang menjadi ancaman saat
ini yaitu penggunaan rekayasa genetika.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Setelah melakukan pengkajian penulis dapat menyimpulkan :</span><b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika adalah suatu kemajuan dibidang IPTEK yang
sangat bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan tingkat fungsional dari suatu makhluk
hidup atau organism</span><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e</span><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika sangat baik digunakan asalkan masih dalam
batas kewajaran manusia yang masih bias dimengerti dengan akal pikiran manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78.0pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rekayasa genetika dapat digunakan untuk memperbaiki
kerusakan dan merupakan alat untuk melakukan pembaharuan yang sangat efisien
jika digunakan dengan tepat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
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<strong>DAFTAR
PUSTAKA</strong><strong><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2006.www.biotek.lipi.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=artic
&id=27:Tanaman%20Transgenik&catid=8&Itemid=53<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="IN">Anonymous.2008.http://bioteknews.blogspot.com/2008/01/apa-benar-kedelai-transgenik-berbahaya.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.
http://www.hupelita.com/baca.php?id=57657</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Anonymous.2008.http://moanbb.blogspot.com/2008/03/kapas-n-siapa-takut.html</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Buckle <em>et
all </em>.2007. Ilmu Pangan. UI Press : Jakarta</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Winarno,FG
.Agustina,W.2007. Pengantar Bioteknologi (<em>Revised Edition</em>). MBrio
Press :Jakarta</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_molekular</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi%20Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.shantybio.transdigit.com/?Biologi</span><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Genetika:Rekayasa_Genetika_Tanaman</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://anekailmu.blogspot.com/2007/08/tnt-trinitrotoluene-dan-tanaman.html</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.eurekaindonesia.org/rekayasa-genetika/</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><br />
http://agrifm.blogspot.com/2007/12/mikroba-penyelamat-alami-global-warming.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1;"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-82848986811353165222012-10-01T06:33:00.003-07:002012-10-01T06:33:22.417-07:00sintesis peptida<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sintesis Peptida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Peptida, pertama disintesis oleh Emil
Fischer, yang dalam 1902 juga mengemukakan gagasan bahwa protein adalah
poliamida.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sintesis amida biasa dari klorida asam
dan amina berupa reaksi langsung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">RCOCl + R’NH2 → RCONHR’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Namun, sintesis peptida atau protein
dengan jalur ini tidak langsung. Permasalahan utama adalah terdapatnya banyak
cara dalam mana asam amino itu bergabung.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Untuk mengindari reaksi yang diinginkan,
setiap gugus reaktif lain, termasuk gugus reaktif dalam rantai samping, haruslah
diblokade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kriteria untuk gugus blokade yang baik
adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Harus
lamban (inert) terhadap kondisi reaksi yang diperlukan membentuk ikatan amida
yang diinginkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Harus
mudah dibuang setelah sintesis itu lengkap.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Satu gugus blokade
semacam itu adalah gugus karbonat lamban terhadap reaksi pembentukan amida,
tetapi mudah dibuang dalam tahap belakangan tanpa mengganggu bagian lain
molekul itu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Glisena yang gugus
aminonya telah diblokade itu dapat direaksikan direaksikan denagan SOCl<sub>2 </sub>untuk
membentuk klorida asam dan kemudian diolah dengan suatu asam amino baru untuk
membentuk suatu amida. Namun klorida asam bersifat sangat reaktif dan dapat
terjadi reaksi-reaksi samping yang tak diinginkan. Untuk menghindari
permaslahan ini, glisina yang telah diblokadegugus aminonya biasanya diolah
dengan etil kloroformat untuk menghasilkan suatu ester teraktifkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>O <span> </span>O<span> </span>O<span> </span>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>‖<span> </span>‖<span> </span>‖<span> </span>‖<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">NHCH<sub>2</sub>COH +
ClCOC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5 </sub>→ -NHCH<sub>2</sub>COCOC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5 </sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Seperti suatu klorida
asam, ester teraktifkan ini dapat beraksi dengan suatu gugus amino dari asam
amino untuk memberikan dipeptida yang diinginkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sintesis Peptida Fase
Padat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam tife sintesis
ini, resin menahan amino C ujung pada gugus karboksilnya sementara peptidanya
disintesis. Resin itu adalah suatu polistirena yang mengandung sekitar 1%
satuan p-(kloro metil) stirena.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gugus amino dari asam
amino pertama yang mula-mula diblokade, sering sebagai suatu gugus
t-butilloksikarbonil (gugus “BOC”) asam amino yang aminonya diblokade ini
sebagai karboksilat, bereaksi dengan gugus klorida benzilik dari resin untuk membentuk
gugus ester (suatu reaksi substitusi yang khas antara suatu karboksilat dan
suatu halida benzilik).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Gugus pemblokade amino dibuang dengan
pengolahan dengan asam tak berair, seperti HCl dalam asam asetat : kemudian
ditambahkan asam amino kedua yang aminonya diblokade (dengan suatu gugus
karbonil tak teraktifkan).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Suatu teknik yang lazim
untuk mengaktifkan gugus –CO<sub>2</sub>H (sehingga mau bereaksi dengan amina)
adalah dengan adisi disikloheksilkarbodiamida ke asam karboksilat. Senyawa ini
bereaksi dengan asam karboksilat untuk menghasilkan suatu zat antara yang
memiliki suatu gugus pergi yang dapat di geser oleh amina itu dalam suatu reaksi
substitusi asil nukleofilik yang khas. Produknya ialah amida.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reagensia
sanggar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reagensia
sangger dikembangkan oleh Sir federik Sangger. Suatu reagensia yang berguna
untukl menetapkan residu N-Ujung adalah reagensia Sanggar.gugus fluoro dari
reagensia Sanggar itu dapat mengalami substitusi nukleofilik aromatik denagn
amina. Substitusi itu mudah karena zat antar karbanion distabilkan oleh gugusn
nitro.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reagensia
sanggar bereaksi dengan mudah dengan asam amino N-ujung dari suatu peptida dan
mengubah gugus amino itu menjadi gugus arilamino. Setelah peptida yang ditangani
itu dihidrolisis lengkap, asam amino N-ujung tetap terikat pada gugus 2,4
dinitrofenil dan karena dapat dipisahkan dari asam amino lain dan
diidentifikasi. Kekurangan utama penggunaan reagensia sanggar adalah bahwa
suatu peptida tidak dapat didegradasi menjadi suatu asam amino tiap kali,
seperti dalam degradasi Edman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rentetan
dalam Asam-Asam Amino<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Polopeptida
besar biasanya harus dihidrolisis menjadi pecahan-pecahan yang lebih kecil
untuk penetapan rentetan dalam asam amino. Campuran hidrolisis dipisah-pisahkan
dari urutan residu asam amino dalam tiap pecahan ditentukan. Struktur
pecahan-pecahan ini disusun seperti teka-teki jig saw untuk memperoleh struktur
keseluruhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam
teori, hidrolisis parsial dapat dicapai dengan memanaskan polipeptida itu
dengan air dan asam atau basa. Dalam praktek digunakan enzim proteolitik
(Penghidrolisis peptida) atau reagensia kimiawi. Reagensia dan enzim ini
mempunyai kelebihan dalam hal mereka memaksakanpisahan polipeptida yang
spesifik. <span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-50018287610614517272012-10-01T06:33:00.001-07:002012-10-01T07:33:36.115-07:00<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sintesis Peptida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Peptida, pertama disintesis oleh Emil
Fischer, yang dalam 1902 juga mengemukakan gagasan bahwa protein adalah
poliamida.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sintesis amida biasa dari klorida asam
dan amina berupa reaksi langsung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">RCOCl + R’NH2 → RCONHR’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Namun, sintesis peptida atau protein
dengan jalur ini tidak langsung. Permasalahan utama adalah terdapatnya banyak
cara dalam mana asam amino itu bergabung.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Untuk mengindari reaksi yang diinginkan,
setiap gugus reaktif lain, termasuk gugus reaktif dalam rantai samping, haruslah
diblokade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kriteria untuk gugus blokade yang baik
adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Harus
lamban (inert) terhadap kondisi reaksi yang diperlukan membentuk ikatan amida
yang diinginkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Harus
mudah dibuang setelah sintesis itu lengkap.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Satu gugus blokade
semacam itu adalah gugus karbonat lamban terhadap reaksi pembentukan amida,
tetapi mudah dibuang dalam tahap belakangan tanpa mengganggu bagian lain
molekul itu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Glisena yang gugus
aminonya telah diblokade itu dapat direaksikan direaksikan denagan SOCl<sub>2 </sub>untuk
membentuk klorida asam dan kemudian diolah dengan suatu asam amino baru untuk
membentuk suatu amida. Namun klorida asam bersifat sangat reaktif dan dapat
terjadi reaksi-reaksi samping yang tak diinginkan. Untuk menghindari
permaslahan ini, glisina yang telah diblokadegugus aminonya biasanya diolah
dengan etil kloroformat untuk menghasilkan suatu ester teraktifkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>O <span> </span>O<span> </span>O<span> </span>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>‖<span> </span>‖<span> </span>‖<span> </span>‖<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">NHCH<sub>2</sub>COH +
ClCOC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5 </sub>→ -NHCH<sub>2</sub>COCOC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5 </sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Seperti suatu klorida
asam, ester teraktifkan ini dapat beraksi dengan suatu gugus amino dari asam
amino untuk memberikan dipeptida yang diinginkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sintesis Peptida Fase
Padat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam tife sintesis
ini, resin menahan amino C ujung pada gugus karboksilnya sementara peptidanya
disintesis. Resin itu adalah suatu polistirena yang mengandung sekitar 1%
satuan p-(kloro metil) stirena.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gugus amino dari asam
amino pertama yang mula-mula diblokade, sering sebagai suatu gugus
t-butilloksikarbonil (gugus “BOC”) asam amino yang aminonya diblokade ini
sebagai karboksilat, bereaksi dengan gugus klorida benzilik dari resin untuk membentuk
gugus ester (suatu reaksi substitusi yang khas antara suatu karboksilat dan
suatu halida benzilik).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Gugus pemblokade amino dibuang dengan
pengolahan dengan asam tak berair, seperti HCl dalam asam asetat : kemudian
ditambahkan asam amino kedua yang aminonya diblokade (dengan suatu gugus
karbonil tak teraktifkan).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Suatu teknik yang lazim
untuk mengaktifkan gugus –CO<sub>2</sub>H (sehingga mau bereaksi dengan amina)
adalah dengan adisi disikloheksilkarbodiamida ke asam karboksilat. Senyawa ini
bereaksi dengan asam karboksilat untuk menghasilkan suatu zat antara yang
memiliki suatu gugus pergi yang dapat di geser oleh amina itu dalam suatu reaksi
substitusi asil nukleofilik yang khas. Produknya ialah amida.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reagensia
sanggar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reagensia
sangger dikembangkan oleh Sir federik Sangger. Suatu reagensia yang berguna
untukl menetapkan residu N-Ujung adalah reagensia Sanggar.gugus fluoro dari
reagensia Sanggar itu dapat mengalami substitusi nukleofilik aromatik denagn
amina. Substitusi itu mudah karena zat antar karbanion distabilkan oleh gugusn
nitro.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reagensia
sanggar bereaksi dengan mudah dengan asam amino N-ujung dari suatu peptida dan
mengubah gugus amino itu menjadi gugus arilamino. Setelah peptida yang ditangani
itu dihidrolisis lengkap, asam amino N-ujung tetap terikat pada gugus 2,4
dinitrofenil dan karena dapat dipisahkan dari asam amino lain dan
diidentifikasi. Kekurangan utama penggunaan reagensia sanggar adalah bahwa
suatu peptida tidak dapat didegradasi menjadi suatu asam amino tiap kali,
seperti dalam degradasi Edman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rentetan
dalam Asam-Asam Amino<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Polopeptida
besar biasanya harus dihidrolisis menjadi pecahan-pecahan yang lebih kecil
untuk penetapan rentetan dalam asam amino. Campuran hidrolisis dipisah-pisahkan
dari urutan residu asam amino dalam tiap pecahan ditentukan. Struktur
pecahan-pecahan ini disusun seperti teka-teki jig saw untuk memperoleh struktur
keseluruhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam
teori, hidrolisis parsial dapat dicapai dengan memanaskan polipeptida itu
dengan air dan asam atau basa. Dalam praktek digunakan enzim proteolitik
(Penghidrolisis peptida) atau reagensia kimiawi. Reagensia dan enzim ini
mempunyai kelebihan dalam hal mereka memaksakanpisahan polipeptida yang
spesifik. <span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-61467266126569083862011-10-20T08:30:00.001-07:002011-10-20T08:30:46.427-07:00makalah nitrogen<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">MAKALAH NITROGEN</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu tugas mata<span> </span>kuliah anorganik 1</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><img height="170" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" width="202" /></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelompok 4<span> </span>yang beranggotakan:</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Iim Imas <span> </span>(1209208045)</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN KIMIA</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">FAKULTAS TARBIYAH DAN KEGURUAN</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGERI SUNAN GUNUNG DJATI</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BANDUNG</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2010</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Kata Pengantar</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pertama-tama kami ucapkan puji dan syukur kepada Allah Swt, karena berkat rahmat dan karunia-Nyalah kami dapat menyelesaikan makalah ini tepat pada waktunya. Tak lupa sholawat dan salam kami limpahkan kepada Nabi Muhammmad SAW, pada para sahabatnya, keluarganya sampai kepada kita umat-Nya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Alhamdulillah makalah yang kami buat ini berjudul Nitrogen. Makalh ini dibuat sebagai salah satu tugas dalam mata kuliah Kimia Anorganik 1.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Makalah ini tersusun tak lepas<span> </span>dari bimbingan Ibu Ida Farida Ch M.Pd. Oleh karena itu kami menyucapkan terima kasih atas bimbingan beliau.<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kami menyadari makalah ini masih banyak kekurangan, oleh karena itu kami berharap kritik dan saran membangun dari semua pihak guna sempurnanya makalah ini.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Akhirnya kami berharap mudah-mudahan makalah ini dapat bermanfaat khususnya bagi dunia pendidikan. Amin </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: right; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: right; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: right; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: right; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bandung,<span> </span>Desember 2010</span></div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: right; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: right; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Penyusun</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR ISI</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kata Pengantar….…………………………………………………………………i</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Daftar Isi<span> </span>………………………………………………………………………...ii</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bab I<span> </span>Pendahuluan………………………………………………………………1</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.1. Latar Belakang ……………………………………………………...…1</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.2.Rumusan Masalah………………………………………………….......1</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.3. Tujuan………………… ………………………………………………2</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bab II<span> </span>Pembahasan……………………………………………………………….3</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.1. Sejarah Nitrogen……………………………………………………….3</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.2. Sifat Fisis dan Sifat Kimia…………………………………………….3</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.3. Fiksasi Nitrogen……………………………………………………….5</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.4. Senyawa-senyawa Nitrogen…………………………………………..6</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.5. Kelimpahan Nitrogen………………………………………………...12</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.6. Kegunaan dan Bahaya………………………………………………..12</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bab III<span> </span> Penutupan………………………………………………………………14</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.1. Kesimpulan…………………………………………………………..14</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.2. Kritik dan Saran……………………………………………………...14</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Daftar Pustaka………………………………………………………………….iii</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB I</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.1<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar Belakang</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 38.7pt;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam kehidupan sehari – hari kita banyak menafaatkan unsur logam dan nonlogam untuk keperluan transportasi, industri, dan bangunan. Penggunaan logam dan nonlogam makin meningkat seiring dengan perkembangan ilmu, teknologi, dan industri</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 38.7pt;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari 109 unsur yang telah di temukan, ada 92 unsur yang terdapat di alam dan 70 unsur diantaranya adakah logam. Hanya sebagian saja dari logam – logam ini yang dimanfaatkan oleh manusia secara meluas. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Alam Indonesia kaya akan bijih logam yang ada dalam prut bumi Indonesia. </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk itu, anda harus mengetahui ilmu dan teknologi untuk mengolahnya.</span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 38.7pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Logam di alam pada umumnya terdapat dalam bentuk senyawa, bukan unsur bebas. Senyawa logam terdapat dalam berbagai batuan dalam kerak bumi. Batuan yang mengandung senyawa logam dalam kadar tinggi disebut Bijih. Senyawa logam yang dikandung bijih disebut mineral</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 38.7pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam makalah ini kami akan membahas tentang unsur non-logam nitrogen.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen aalah salah satu unsur golongan V A yang merupakan unsur nonlogam dan gas yang paling banyak di atmosfir bumi. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen terdapat dalam bentuk unsur bebas di udara (78% volume), sebagai ammonia yang berasal dari senyawa – senyawa nitrogen, serta dalam beberapa mineral, seperti kalium nitrat</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. Nitrogen merupakan unsur yang relatif stabil, tetapi membentuk isotop – isotop yang 4 diantaranya bersifat radioaktif.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.2<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Rumusan Masalah</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagaimana sejarah penemuan nitrogen?</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa saja sifat kimia dan sifat fisika dari unsir nitrogen?</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagaimana cara pembuatannya?</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Apa manfaat dan bahaya dari<span> </span>unsur nitrogen? </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.3<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk mengetahui tentang pengertian unsur nitrogen dan keguanaan serta bahaya nitrogen dalam kehidupan sehari – hari.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB II</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PEMBAHASAN</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.1 SEJARAH NITROGEN</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Pada tahun 1772, Hanry Cavendish ( 1731 – 1810 ) mengemukakan bahwa komponen penyusun udara terbanyak adalah mephitic air. Dua tahun kemudian joseph priestley ( 1773 – 1804 ) menemuka komponen udara lain, yaitu apa yang disebutnya vital air.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Penemuan kedua ilmuan inggris di atas mendorong Antoine lourent Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) di prancis untuk melakukan eksperimen. Lavoisier memanaskan merkuri (raksa) dalam tabung tertutup . Ternyata merkuri bersenyawadengan seperlima bagian udara, membentuk suatu serbuk merah (yg sekarang di sebut merkuri oksida). Empat perlima bagian sisa udara tetap berupa gas. Lavoisier mengamati bahwa dalam gas sisa itu lilin tak dapat menyala serta tikus tak dapat hidup lama. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Maka, lavoisier menyimpulkan bahwa udara tersusun dari dua jenis gas. Jenis gas yang pertama sangatberguna bagi kehidupan dan pembakaran dan jumlahnya meliputi seperlima bagian udara. Inilah vital air yang di kemukakan oleh Priestley. Gas Vital air ini oleh Lavoisier diberi namaoksigen.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Adapun jenis gas yang kedua, yang meliputi empat perlima bagian udara,merupakan gas mephitik air yang ditemukan ole( h cavendish. Lavoisier sendiri memberi nama azote (dalam bahasa yunani) yang berarti” tiada kehidupan ”. Kemudian abad ke -19,nama azote diganti menjadi nitrogen yang artinya pembentuk ”niter”. Niter adalah nama lama untuk kalium nitrat, KNO<sub>3</sub>, suatu zat yang sejak zaman purba dipakai sebagai zat pengawet </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.2 SIFAT FISIS DAN SIFAT KIMIA NITROGEN</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen adalah zat komponen penyusun utama atmasfer bumi. Udara terdiri atas 78% volume nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>). Nitrogen adalah gas yang tidak berwarna, tidak berbau, dan tidak berasa. Nitrogen dalam deret kimia termasuk kedalam<span> </span>nonmetals, termasuk golongan VA, periode 2, dan blok p. Penampilanya berupa colorless. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 0px; margin-left: 113px; margin-top: 197px; position: absolute; width: 15px; z-index: 1;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" width="15" /></span><span style="height: 2px; left: 0px; margin-left: 113px; margin-top: 208px; position: absolute; width: 15px; z-index: 3;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" width="15" /></span><span style="height: 2px; left: 0px; margin-left: 113px; margin-top: 202px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 2;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" width="14" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Memiliki massa atom 14,0067 g/mol dengan massa atom 7( 1s<sup>2 </sup>2s<sup>2<span> </span></sup>3s<sup>3</sup>). Selain itu adapun ciri fisik dari nitrogen seperti berfasa gas, bermassa jenis 1,251 g/L, titik leburnya 63,15 K, titik didih 77,36, titik kritisnya 126,21 K. Nitrogen cair mendidih pada -196 <sub></sub><sup>0</sup>c, dan membeku pada -210<sup>0</sup>C. </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sruktur dari gas nitrogen adalah berupa Kristal hexagonal. Kelektronegatifan gas nitrogen menduduki peringkat ke-3 setelah flour dan oksigen. Gas nitrogen termasuk kedalam gas yang inert ( tidak reaktif ). Hal ini disebabkan oleh besarnya energi ikatan antara ikatan rangkap tiga N<span> </span>N, nitrogen digunakan sebagai atmosfer inert untuk suatu proses / sistem yang terganggu oleh oksigen, misalnya dalam industri elektronika dan juga Bilangan okdidasi nitrogen bervariasi dari -3 sampai +5, sebagaimana dapat dilihat dari tabel berikut ini :</span></div><table align="left" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; margin-left: 6.75pt; margin-right: 6.75pt;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="border: 1pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bilangan oksidasi</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh senyawa</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-3</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>3</sub> ( amoniak )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-2</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+ </sup>( Ion amonium )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-1</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>2</sub>OH <span> </span>( Hidroksilamin )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">0</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N<sub>2 </sub>( gas nitrogen )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">+1</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N<sub>2</sub>O( dinitrogen monoksida)</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">+2</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NO(Nitrogen oksida)</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">+2</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>( nitrogen trioksida )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">+3</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">HNO<sub>2</sub>( asam nitrit )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td rowspan="2" style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">+4</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NO<sub>2 </sub><span> </span>nitrogen dioksida )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>( dinitrogen terra oksida )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td rowspan="2" style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 99pt;" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">+5</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5 </sub>(nitrogen pentaoksida )</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.45pt;" valign="top" width="213"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">HNO<sub>3 </sub>( asam nitrat )</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" /> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Banyak senyawa nitrogen yang memiliki entalpi pembentukan yang positiv. Reaksi – reaksi gas nitrogen harus berlangsung dalam kondisi khusus, misalnya suhu dan tkanan tinggi, dibantu oleh suatu katalis dengan menggunakan energi listrik, atau diuraikan oleh mikroorganisme tertentu. Proses pengubahan nirogen menjadi senyawa –senyawa yang dikenal sebagai proses fiksasi nitrogen. Ketika kita bernapas, gas nitrogen bersama udara masuk dan keluar paru-paru tanpa mengalami perubahan sedikitpun. Meskipun setiap saat kita senantiasa berenang dalam lautan nitrogen, tubuh kta tidak dapat mengambil nitrogen secara langsung dari udara. </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen dalam yubuh kita berasal dari makanan yang kita makan , bukan dari udara yang kita irup. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.3<span> </span>Fiksasi Nitrogen</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen yang terkombinasi secara kimia disebut nitrogen ” berfiksasi ”. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Semua proses yang mengubah N<sub>2 </sub><span> </span>menjadi senyawanya disebut fiksasi nitrogen. Nitrogen adalah salah satu unsure essensil dalam makhluk hidup </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen sangat penting bagi semua makhluk hidup. Namun, hewan, manusia dan sebagian besar tanaman hanya dapat menggunakan nitrogen terfiksasi. </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Makhluk hidup ini tidak dafat dipergunakan langsung di alam dan secara langsung nitrogn dari udara untuk kebutuhan metabolisme.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="height: 135px; left: 0px; margin-left: 229px; margin-top: 53px; position: absolute; width: 170px; z-index: 4;"><img alt="Oval: Nitrogen atmosfer" height="135" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" width="170" /></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fiksasi nitrogen dapat terjadi secara alamiah melslui siklus nitrogen di alam atau fiksasi nitrogen buatan. Siklus nitrogen yang terdapat dialam adalah sebagai berikut : </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="height: 80px; margin-left: 371px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 122px; z-index: 11;"><img height="80" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" width="122" /></span><span style="height: 87px; margin-left: 163px; margin-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 90px; z-index: 10;"><img height="87" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" width="90" /></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 9;"><span style="height: 95px; left: 154px; position: absolute; top: -5px; width: 98px;"><img height="95" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" width="98" /></span></span><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Bakteri (6)<span> </span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="height: 105px; margin-left: 409px; margin-top: 21px; position: absolute; width: 138px; z-index: 5;"><img alt="Oval: Protein nabati dan hewani" height="105" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" width="138" /></span><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>(1a)Loncatan listrik<span> </span>(1)<span> </span>Bakteri</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="height: 100px; margin-left: 70px; margin-top: 7px; position: absolute; width: 156px; z-index: 6;"><img alt="Oval: Nitrat" height="100" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" width="156" /></span><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="height: 12px; margin-left: 241px; margin-top: 14px; position: absolute; width: 166px; z-index: 15;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.gif" width="166" /></span><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>(5) Tanaman</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span> </span></div><table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td height="10" width="146"><br />
</td> <td width="12"><br />
</td> <td width="329"><br />
</td> <td width="12"><br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="11"><br />
</td> <td colspan="2"><br />
</td> <td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="top"><img height="52" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.gif" width="12" /></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="41"><br />
</td> <td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="top"><img height="45" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.gif" width="12" /></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="4"><br />
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></b><br />
<br clear="ALL" /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>(4) Bakteri<span> </span><span> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(2)</span></b><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Peluruhan</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 7;"><span style="height: 108px; left: 68px; position: absolute; top: -1px; width: 479px;"> </span></span></div><table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td height="0" width="0"><br />
</td> <td width="170"><br />
</td> <td width="171"><br />
</td> <td width="138"><br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="9"><br />
</td> <td colspan="2"><br />
</td> <td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="top"><img alt="Oval: Amonia" height="100" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" width="138" /></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="91"><br />
</td> <td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="top"><img alt="Oval: Nitrit" height="99" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gif" width="170" /></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="8"><br />
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></b><br />
<br clear="ALL" /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="height: 12px; margin-left: 235px; margin-top: 23px; position: absolute; width: 180px; z-index: 14;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" width="180" /></span><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span></span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>(3) bakteri</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><b>Gambar.<span> </span>Bagan siklus Nitrogen </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagan tersebut dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses alam yang mengubah nitrogen yang tidak reaktif menjadi senyawa-senyawa nitrogen yang lain adalah dengan cara :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bakteri (1) yang tinggal di sebagai parasit yang terdapat pada akar tumbuhan golongan leguminosa dapat memfiksasi nitrogen atmosfer secara langsung untuk diubah menjadi protein nabati.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 213px; margin-top: 86px; position: absolute; width: 56px; z-index: 16;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.gif" width="56" /></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses alami pembentukan nitrogen terfiksasi dapat juga terjadiakibat loncatan listrik dari petir (1a) yang mengakibatkan nitrogen dan oksigen yang terkena petir bereaksi membentuk<span> </span>nitrogen monoksida, NO. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan reaksi<span> </span>N<sub>2 </sub>(g)<span> </span>+ O<sub>2</sub> (g)<span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>2NO<sub> </sub>(g). Gas NO selanjutnya bereaksi dengan O<sub>2</sub> Menjadi : </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 423px; margin-top: 32px; position: absolute; width: 46px; z-index: 18;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.gif" width="46" /></span><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 190px; margin-top: 6px; position: absolute; width: 56px; z-index: 17;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image019.gif" width="56" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NO<sub>2</sub> : 3NO (g) + O<sub>2</sub><span> </span>2NO<sub>2</sub>(g). Gas NO<sub>2 </sub>yang terjadi akan larut dalam air hujan membentuk asam nitrit : NO<sub>2</sub> (g)<span> </span>+<span> </span>H<sub>2</sub>O<span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>HNO<sub>3 </sub>(aq).<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses persakan atau (2) protein hewani dan nabati mengakibatkan pembentukan ammonia. Perusakan atau peluruhan ini terjadi akibat sekresi dan ekresi hewan yang mengkonsumsi protein nabati.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Aksi bakteri (3) dan (4) berturut-turut mengubah amonia menjadi nitrat.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrat diperlukan oleh tanaman (5) untuk membentuk protein. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bakteria denitrifikasi (6) peluruhan tertentu mampu menguraikan nitrat menjadi unsure nitrogen, yang kembali ke atmosfir.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.4 Senyawa – senyawa nitrogen</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Senyawa-senyawa nitrogen diantaranya:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Amonia</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><img height="61" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.gif" width="83" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Amonia adalah gas yang mudah mencair, titik didihnya -33,4 <sup>0</sup>C dan membeku pada -77,7<sup>0</sup>C. Amonia sangat mudah dikenali karena baunya yang sangat khas.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Keberadannya di udara dapat terdeteksi pada kadar 50 – 60 PPM.pada kadar 100 – 200 ppm, amoniak menyeba:bkan iritasi mata dan masuk ke paru-paru. Pada konsentrasi tinggi uap ammonia mengakibatkan pary-paru dipenuhi dengan air dan dengan cepat menimbulkan kematian, bila tidak segera diberi pertolongan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Amonia sangat mudah larut dalam air.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Larutan amonia bersifat basa lemah sesuai dengan reaksi sebagai berikut :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 163px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 42px; z-index: 30;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.gif" width="42" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>NH<sub>3</sub> (aq)<span> </span>+<span> </span>H<sub>2</sub>O<span> </span><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N<sub>2</sub>H(aq)<span> </span>+<span> </span>H<sub>2</sub>O(aq)<span> </span>K<sub>b </sub>= 1,8 x 10<sup>-5</sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam kuat mengubah ammonia menjadi ion ammonium , contohnya:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 181px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 55px; z-index: 19;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.gif" width="55" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>3</sub> (aq)<span> </span>+<span> </span>HCI (aq)<span> </span>NH<sub>4</sub>Cl (aq)<span> </span>+ <span> </span>H<sub>2</sub>O (aq),<span> </span>atau</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 191px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 54px; z-index: 20;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.gif" width="54" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>3 </sub>(aq)<span> </span>+<span> </span>H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> (aq)<span> </span>NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> (aq)<span> </span>+<span> </span>H<sub>2</sub>O </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Penggunaan terpenting ammonia adalah sebagai induk untuk pembuatan senyawa nitrogen yang lain, seperti asam nitrat (HNO<sub>3</sub>), dan ammonium klorida<span> </span>( NH<sub>4</sub>Cl). Dan pembuatan pupuk , terutama pupuk urea, CO(NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2, </sub>pupuk ammonium nitrat NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub> dan pupuk ZA, (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Selain itu ammonia digunakan sebagai pendingin dalam pabrik es. Karenaamonia mudah mencair bila di kompresikan dan menguap kembali bila diekspansikan. Amonia juga sering digunakan sebagai pelarut karena kepolaran ammonia cair hamper sama dengan kepolaran air. Amonia caur dapat melarutkan logam golongan VA dan IIA. Larutan yang dihasilkan berwarna biru, karena terjadi amoniasi electron. Amoniasi adalah molekul zat terlarut dikelilingi ammonia cair. Hal ini serupa dengan terhidrasinya suatu kation oleh air. Contohnya:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 280px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 54px; z-index: 21;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image025.gif" width="54" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2 Na<sup>+</sup> (am)<span> </span>+<span> </span>2e<sup>-</sup> (am)<span> </span>+<span> </span>2NH<sub>3</sub> (I)<span> </span>H<sub>2</sub> (g) +<span> </span>2NaH<sub>2 </sub>(am)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Pada reaksi di atas , symbol (am) untuk menunjukan spesi yang teramoniasi. Ion amida, Sedangkan ion NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> dalam ammonia cairbersifat asam, analog dengan ion H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> dalam air. Oleh karena itu, reaksi netralisasi dalam ammonia cair adalah:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 209px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 55px; z-index: 22;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.gif" width="55" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> (am)<span> </span>+<span> </span>NH<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup> (am)<span> </span>NH<sub>3 </sub>(I)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan reaksi di atas Nh<sub>4</sub>Cl dapat dititrasi menggunakan KNH<sub>2</sub> dalam amonia cair, sama halnya dengan mentitrasi HCl dengan KOH dalam pelarut air dan indikstor fenoptalein dapat digunakan untuk menentukan titik akhir titrasi.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan ammonia</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Pembuatan ammonia dengan proses Haber-bosch merupakan suatu proses yang sangat pentingbdalam dunia industri, mengingatkebutuhan ammonia sebagai bahan dasar utama dalam pembuatan berbagai produk, misalnya pupuk urea, asam nitrat, dan senyawa nitrogen lainnya. Adapun reaksi proses Haber-bosch yaitu:</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><img height="521" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.jpg" width="314" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 185px; margin-top: 7px; position: absolute; width: 44px; z-index: 24;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image029.gif" width="44" /></span><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 184px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute; width: 49px; z-index: 23;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.gif" width="49" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N<sub>2</sub>(g)<span> </span>+<span> </span>3H<sub>2</sub> (g)<span> </span><span> </span>2 NH<sub>3 </sub>(g)SO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup> </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Untuk memberikan hasil yang optimal, reaksi tersebut berlangsung pada suhu 450<sup>o</sup>C – 500<sup>o</sup>C. Agar proses kesetimbangan cepat selesai, digunakan katalisator besi yang dicampur<span> </span>dengan Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>,<sub> </sub>MgO, GaO, dan K<sub>2</sub>O, untuk menggeser reaksi ke arah zat produk ( kekanan ), tekanan yang digunakan harus tinggi. </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tekanan 200 atm akan memberikan hasil NH<sub>3</sub> 15%, tekanan, 350 atm menghasilkan NH<sub>3</sub> 30 % dan tekanan 1000 atm akan mendapatkan NH<sub>3</sub> 40%. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Selama proses berlangsung, untuk menghasilkan jumlah amonia sebanyak-banyaknya gas nitrogen dan hidrogen di tambahkan secara terus- menerus ke dalam sistem. Amonia yang terbentuk harus segera dipisahkan ari campuran, dengan cara mengembunkanya. Ini karena titik didih amonia jauh lebih tinggi dan titik didih nitrogen dan nitrogen.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Garam-garam ammonium</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 40.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 430px; margin-top: 59px; position: absolute; width: 51px; z-index: 25;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" width="51" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Garam-garam ammonium terbentuk dengan ion Cl<sup>-</sup>, No<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>, SO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup>, dan beberapa anion dari asam fosfat contohnya reaksi ammonia dengan asam menghasilkan garam ammonium : NH<sub>3 </sub>(aq)<span> </span>+ HCl (aq)<span> </span><span> </span>Nh<sub>4</sub>Cl (aq). Umumnya semua garam ammonium mudah larut dalam air dan berdisosiasi sempurna.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Amonium klorida<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 454px; margin-top: 31px; position: absolute; width: 38px; z-index: 26;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image032.gif" width="38" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Penambahan basa kuat pada larutan ammonium klorida dapat membebaskan ammonia. Reaksinya: NH<sub>4</sub>Cl (aq)<span> </span>+<span> </span>OH<sup>-+ </sup>(aq)<span> </span>NH<sub>3 </sub>(aq)<span> </span>+ <span> </span>Cl<sup>-</sup> (aq)<span> </span>+<span> </span>H<sub>2</sub>O (l)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>4</sub>Cl digunakan dalam pembuatan baterai sel kering dalam pembersih permukaan logam, dan sebagai pencair dalam pematrian logam. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Urea dibuatdari reaksi antara ammonia dengan CO<sub>2</sub>, dan reaksinya sbb:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2NH<sub>3</sub><span> </span>+<span> </span>CO<sub>2</sub><span> </span>H<sub>2</sub>N – CO – NH<sub>2 </sub>+ H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Reaksi ini berlangsung pada tekanan 200 atm dan suhu 185 <sup>0</sup>C. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Urea dalam bentuk padat mudah ditaburkan dalam lahan pertanian. Dalam tanah , air akan bereaksi dengan urea membebaskan ammonia.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Amonium nitrat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Amonium nitrat dibuat dari reaksi antara ammonia dengan asam nitrat, reaksinya adalah:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 149px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 44px; z-index: 27;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" width="44" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NH<sub>3</sub><span> </span>+<span> </span>HNO<sub>3</sub><span> </span>NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ammonium nitrat digunakan sebagai pupuk yang mempunyai persentase N yang lebih tinggi disbanding ( NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>. Namun ammonium nitrat tidak stabil terhadap panas, berbahaya untuk penerapan tertentu dan penting penggunaannya sebagai bahan peledak.<span> </span>NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>3</sub> (s)<span> </span>+ N<sub>2</sub>O (g)<span> </span>+<span> </span>2 H<sub>2</sub>O (g)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Amonium sulfat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> merupakan pupuk padatan yang banyak digunakan. Senyawa ammonia yang digunakan sebagai pupuk adalah ammonium sulfat ( seperti NH<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>). Dan (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>HPO<sub>4</sub>). Keduanya merupakan pupuk yang baik karena menyediakan N dan P untuk pertumbuhan tanaman. Selain itu keduanya juga digunakan sebagai penghambat kebakaran.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrida</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Nitrida adalah senyawa biner nitrogen ( biloks 3 ) dengan unsur – unsur selain hydrogen. Nitrida logam IA dan IIA merupakan senyawa dengan titik leleh yang tinggi, bersifat ionik dan nitrogen terdapat sebagai ion N<sup>3-</sup>. Nitrida logam dibuat melalui pemanasan pada suhu tinggi logam dengan amonia atau nitrogen. Contohnya:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 254px; margin-top: 3px; position: absolute; width: 55px; z-index: 31;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.gif" width="55" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3Mg (s)<span> </span>+<span> </span>2NH<sub>3</sub> (g)<span> </span>900<sup>0</sup>C<span> </span><span> </span>Mg<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2 </sub>(s)<span> </span>+<span> </span>3H<sub>2 (g)</sub></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ion nitrida N<sup>3-</sup> merupakan basa bronsted yang kuat, memberikan NH<sub>3 </sub>bereaksi dengan air.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Nitrida no logam merupakan senyawa yang berikatan kovalen. </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat-sifat senyawa itu berbeda-beda. Contohnya boron nitrida mempunyai titik leleh 3000<sup>0</sup>C dan sangat inert. Rumus kimia boron menunjukan rumus empirisnya, bukan rumus molekulnya. Strukturnya digambarkan sebagai berikut:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Sebaliknya , nitrida karbonyaitu sianogen mempunyai rumus molekul (CN)<sub>2</sub>. Senyawa ini membentuk gas dan sangat beracun. Nitrida sukfur mempunyai rumus molekul S<sub>4</sub>N<sub>4</sub> meleleh pada 178<sup>0</sup>C, tetapi dapat meledak bila dipanaskan terlalu cepat.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hidrazin</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, </span></b><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">hidrosiklamin dan azida</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Hidrazin merupakan cairan tak berwarna yang beracun, mendidih pada 113,5 <sup>0 C </sup>dan bersifat bassa yang lebih lemah dari pada amunia. Bilangan oksidasi N pada hidrazin adalah -2 hidrazin dibuat secara komersial melalui proses rasching, yaitu oksidasi amonia oleh natrium hipoklorit.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 180px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 31px; z-index: 28;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image034.gif" width="31" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2NH<sub>3(aq)</sub>+NaOCl<sub>(aq)</sub><span> </span>N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4(aq)</sub>+NaCl<sub>(aq)</sub>+H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hidrazin cair digunakan sebagai bahan bakar roket.untuk keperluan ini<span> </span>cair dicampur dengan 1,1 dimetilhidrazin,suatu bahan yang dapat terbakar sendiri bila di campur dengan hidrogen peroksida atau oksigen dari tangki oksigen cair.reaksi berlangsung sangat eksotermik, yaitu sebagai berikut:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 12px; left: 0px; margin-left: 152px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 31px; z-index: 29;"><img height="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image035.gif" width="31" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">N2H4(l)+O2(l)<span> </span>N2(g)+2H2O(g)<span> </span>ΔH<sub>0</sub> = -621,3 kj</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Hidroksilamin HONH<sub>2</sub> berupa padatan putih meleleh pada 350<sup>0</sup>C bersifat bassa dengan Kb = 6,6 x 10<sup>-9</sup> pada 25<sup>o</sup> C. Bilangan oksidasi N pada hidroksi lamin adalah -1.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 34.9pt;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam dirozoik mengandung N dengan biloks -1/3 dalam keadaan murni. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berupa cairan tak berwarna yang sangat mudah meledak bersifat asam lemah. </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ionazid berbentuk linear dan simetris, berdasarkar teori ikatan palensi bentuk struktur resoninsasinya sebagai berikut: </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Ionazid dalam pelarut air memberlakukan seperti ion halida,karena itu sering di sebut psudohalida. Diketahui ada beberapa garam yang di sebit sebagai azida. Azida dari logam berat seperti timbal azida meledak bila terbentur dengan keras, karenanya di gunakan sebagai tutup detonantor dan peralatan yang di rancang<span> </span>untuk melendakan material lain.seperti bubuk mesium.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Azid dari logam 1 A tidak mudah meledak </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam Okso dan oksida nitrogen </span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam nitrat, dinitrogen penoksida dan ionitra </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa dengan bilangan oksidasi nitrogen tertinggi +5<span> </span>adalah asam nitra,di nitrogen pentoksida dan ionitrat.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Oksida nitrogen lainnya</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Di nitrogen oksida N<sub>2</sub> O dapat di buat melalui reaksi penguraian amuniam nitrat. Penggunaan utamanya adalah sebagai anestesis. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen oksida. Metode labolatorium untuk membuat NO melibatkan reaksi Cu dengan HNO encer dingin. Secara komersial NO di produksi melalui Oksidasi katalitik oksidasi MI menghasilkan tahap pertama pengubahan NH3 menjadi senyawa nitrogen lainnya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen dioksida dapat di buat melalui reaksi CU dengan HNO pekat panas.. tetapi sering kali NO berwarna cokelat yang di amati dalam suatu reaksi yang melibatkan HNO memberikan hasil reaksi NO yang tidak berwarna. NO segera di oksidasi menjadi NO<sub>2 </sub>diudara.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.5 Kelimpahan </span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen terdapat di alam sebagai unsur bebas berupa molekul diatomik (<i>N</i>2)</span><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kira-kira 78,09% volume atmosf</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">e</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">r.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Dijumpai dalam mineral penting seperti<span> </span><i>KNO</i>3<i> dan sendawa Chili NaNO3 .</i> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada tumbuhuan dan hewan, nitrogen berupa bentuk protein yang komposisi rataratanya </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">51% C; 25% O; 16% N; 7% H; 0,4%P; dan 0,4% S.</span><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.6 Kegunaan dan Bahaya</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Adapun kegunaan<b> </b>dari senyawa-senyawa nitrogen diantaranya:<b> </b></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam bentuk amonia niotrogen </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, digunakan sebagai<span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ahan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pupuk, obat-obatan,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">asam nitrat, urea, hidrasin, amin, dan pendingin.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Asam nitrat digunakan dalam pembuatan zat pewarna dan bahan peledak.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen sering digunakan jika diperlukan lingkungan yang inert, misalnya dalam bola lampu listrik untuk mencegah evaporasi filamen </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sedangkan nitrogen cair banyak digunakan sebagai refrigerant (pendingin) yang</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">sangat efektif karena relatif murah</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Banyak digunakan oleh laboratorium-laboratorium medis dan laboratoriumlaboratorium penelitian sebagai pengawet bahan-bahan preservatif untuk jangka waktu yang sangat lama, misalnya pada bank sperma, bank penyimpanan organ-organ tubuh manusia, bank darah. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Selain kegunaan dari senyawa nitrogen adapula bahaya dari senyawa-senyawa nitrogen diantarany:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika oksida nitrat (N<sub>2</sub>O) mencapai stratosfer, ia membantu merusak lapisan ozon, sehingga menghasilkan tingkat radiasi UV yang lebih tinggi dan risiko kanker kulit serta katarak yang meningkat.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen oksida (N<sub>2</sub>O) terlarut dalam air atmosferik membentuk hujan asam, yang mengkorosi batuan dan barang logam dan merusak bangunan-bangunan </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nitrogen oksida (N<sub>2</sub>O) berkontribusi bagi pemanasan global.Walaupun konsentrasi oksida nitrat di atmosfer sangat rendah dibanding karbon dioksida, potensi pemanasan global oksida nitrat adalah sekitar 300 kali lebih besar.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelebihan nitrogen di perairan menyebabkan berkurangnya kadar oksigen dalam air sehingga menyebabkan kepunahan kehidupan di perairan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB III</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENUTUPAN</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Simpulan </span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Nitrogen adalah komponen penyusun utama atmosfer bumi. Udara terdiri atas 78% volume nitrogen. Nitrogen adalah gas yang tidak berwarna , tidak berbau, dan tidak berasa. Gas nitrogen termasuk gas yang inert hal ini disebabkan oleh besarnya energi ikatan antara ikatan rangkap tiga. Oleh karena sifatnya yang kurang reaktif, nitrogen digunakan sebagai atmosfer inert untuk suatu proses/sistem yang terganggu oleh oksigen, misalnya dalam industri elektronika.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Adapun senyawa-senyawa nitrogen diantaranyayaitu nitrida, Hidrazin, Hidroksilamin, azida serta asam okso dan oksida nitrogen.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -64.9pt;"><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Saran dan kritik</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Dalam pembuatan makalah ini mungkin masih dalam tahap penyempurnaan. Oleh karena itu, saran dan kritik para pembaca sangat kami harapkan untuk melengkapi kesempurnaan makalah ini.<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 21.3pt;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Farida,ida. Kimia anorganik I program studi pendidikan kimia fakultas tarbiyah dan keguruan . Universitas UIN sunan Gunung Djati bandung.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Anshryirfan. Penuntun belajar kimia.januari 1988.ganeca axact bandung.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.google/"><span lang="DA" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">www.google</span></a><span lang="DA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> chemistry nitrogen</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">BAB I</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">PENDAHULUAN</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Latar Belakang</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Kegiatan menyusun rencana pembelajaran merupakan salah satu tugas penting guru dalam memproses pembelajaran siswa. Dalam perspektif kebijakan pendidikan nasional yang dituangkan dalam Permendiknas RI No. 41 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Proses disebutkan bahwa salah satu komponen dalam penyusunan Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran (RPP) yaitu adanya tujuan pembelajaran yang di dalamnya menggambarkan proses dan hasil belajar yang diharapkan dapat dicapai oleh siswa sesuai dengan kompetensi dasar.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Agar proses pembelajaran dapat terkonsepsikan dengan baik, maka seorang guru dituntut untuk mampu menyusun dan merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran secara jelas dan tegas. Dengan demikian, dalam kenyataan di lapangan saat ini, tampaknya kita masih dapat menemukan permasalahan yang dihadapi para guru (calon guru) dalam merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran yang hendak dilakukannya, yang berujung pada inefektivitas dan inefesiensi pembelajaran.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Oleh karena itu, melalui makalah ini akan dikemukakan secara singkat tentang apa dan bagaimana merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran serta macam-macam tujuan pembelajaran, dalam perspektif teoritis. Dengan harapan dapat memberikan pemahaman kepada mahasiswa sebagai calon guru agar dapat merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran secara tegas dan jelas, sehingga dapat melaksanakan pembelajaran yang benar-benar<span> </span>terfokus pada tujuan yang telah dirumuskannya.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Sistematika Penyusunan</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;">Paper ini disusun dengan menggunakan metode studi literatur dari beberapa buku yang didownloade dari <span> </span>internet dan beberapa tulisan di internet.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><b>BAB II</b><b><span lang="IN"></span></b></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><b><span lang="IN">PEMBAHASAN</span></b></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><b><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b>Tujuan Pembelajaran</b></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;"><b><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b>Definisi Tujuan Pembelajaran</b></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Salah satu sumbangan terbesar dari aliran psikologi behaviorisme terhadap pembelajaran bahwa pembelajaran seyogyanya memiliki tujuan. Gagasan perlunya tujuan dalam pembelajaran pertama kali dikemukakan oleh B.F. Skinner pada tahun 1950. Kemudian diikuti oleh Robert Mager pada tahun 1962 yang dituangkan dalam bukunya yang berjudul <em>Preparing</em> <em>Instruction Objective</em>. Sejak pada tahun 1970 hingga sekarang penerapannya semakin meluas hampir di seluruh lembaga pendidikan di dunia, termasuk di Indonesia.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Merujuk pada tulisan Hamzah B. Uno (2008) berikut ini dikemukakan beberapa pengertian tujuan pembelajaran<span> </span>yang dikemukakan oleh para ahli, yaitu sbb:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Robert F. Mager mengemukakan bahwa tujuan pembelajaran adalah perilaku yang hendak dicapai atau yang dapat dikerjakan oleh siswa pada kondisi dan tingkat kompetensi tertentu. </div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Kemp dan David E. Kapel<span> </span>menyebutkan bahwa tujuan pembelajaran suatu pernyataan yang spesifik yang dinyatakan dalam perilaku atau penampilan yang diwujudkan dalam bentuk tulisan untuk menggambarkan hasil belajar yang diharapkan.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Henry Ellington bahwa tujuan pembelajaran adalah pernyataan yang diharapkan dapat dicapai sebagai hasil belajar.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Oemar Hamalik (2005) menyebutkan bahwa tujuan pembelajaran adalah suatu deskripsi mengenai tingkah laku yang diharapkan tercapai oleh siswa setelah berlangsung pembelajaran.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Standar Proses pada Permendiknas Nomor 41 Tahun 2007, tujuan pembelajaran menggambarkan proses dan hasil belajar yang diharapkan dicapai oleh peserta didik sesuai dengan kompetensi dasar. Ini berarti kemampuan yang dirumuskan dalam tujuan pembelajaran mencakup kemampuan yang akan dicapai siswa selama proses belajar dan hasil akhir belajar pada suatu KD.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Meski para ahli memberikan rumusan tujuan pembelajaran yang beragam, tetapi tampaknya menunjuk pada esensi yang sama, bahwa :</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Tujuan pembelajaran adalah tercapainya perubahan perilaku pada siswa setelah mengikuti kegiatan pembelajaran.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Tujuan dirumuskan dalam bentuk pernyataan atau deskripsi yang spesifik.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Yang menarik untuk digarisbawahi yaitu dari pemikiran Kemp dan David E. Kapel bahwa perumusan tujuan pembelajaran harus diwujudkan dalam bentuk tertulis. Hal ini mengandung implikasi bahwa setiap perencanaan pembelajaran seyogyanya dibuat secara tertulis (<em>written plan</em>). </div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Upaya merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran dapat memberikan manfaat tertentu, baik bagi guru maupun siswa. Empat manfaat dari tujuan pembelajaran, yaitu:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Memudahkan dalam mengkomunikasikan maksud kegiatan belajar mengajar kepada siswa, sehingga siswa dapat melakukan perbuatan belajarnya secara lebih mandiri.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Memudahkan guru memilih dan menyusun bahan ajar.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Membantu memudahkan guru menentukan kegiatan belajar dan media pembelajaran.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Memudahkan guru mengadakan penilaian.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Dalam Permendiknas RI No. 41 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Proses disebutkan bahwa tujuan pembelajaran memberikan petunjuk untuk memilih isi mata pelajaran, menata urutan topik-topik, mengalokasikan waktu, petunjuk dalam memilih alat-alat bantu pengajaran dan prosedur pengajaran, serta menyediakan ukuran (standar) untuk mengukur prestasi belajar siswa. Sementara itu, Fitriana Elitawati (2002) menginformasikan hasil studi tentang manfaat tujuan dalam proses belajar mengajar bahwa perlakuan yang berupa pemberian informasi secara jelas mengenai tujuan pembelajaran khusus kepada siswa pada awal kegiatan proses belajar-mengajar, ternyata dapat meningkatkan efektifitas belajar siswa.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Memperhatikan penjelasan di atas, tampak<span> </span>bahwa tujuan pembelajaran merupakan salah satu komponen penting dalam pembelajaran, yang di dalamnya dapat menentukan mutu dan tingkat efektivitas pembelajaran.<strong><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></strong></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">b.<span> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkatan-tingkatan Tujuan Pembelajaran</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan instruksional atau tujuan pembelajaran menurut Hernawan (2005) terbagi atas beberapa tingkatan yaitu:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan Pembelajaran yang paling umum, yaitu tujuan pendidikan nasional.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan pendidikan nasional menurut UU No 2 tahun 1989 tentang system pendidikan nasional yaitu: “Pendidikan Nasional bertujuan mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa dan mengembangkan manusia Indonesia seutuhnya, yaitu manusia yang beriman dan bertaqwa terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa dan berbudi pekerti luhur, memiliki pengetahuan dan keterampilan, kesehatan jasmani dan rohani, kepribadian yang mantap dan mandiri serta rasa tanggung<span> </span>jawab kemasyarakatan dan kebangsaan (pasal 4)”.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan institusional, berisi rumusan kemampuan yang diharapkan dikuasai oleh pebelajar setelah mengikuti pendidikan pada suatu tingkat pendidikan tertentu. Misalnya tujuan pendidikan dasar (SD dan SMP) yaitu: “Pendidikan dasar bertujuan memberikan bekal kemampuan dasar kepada peserta didik untuk mengembangkan kehidupannya sebagai pribadi, anggota masyarakat, warga Negara, dan anggota umat manusia serta mempersiapkan peserta didik untuk mengikuti pendidikan menengah. (Bab II, Pasal 3 Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 28 tahun 1990).</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan Kurikuler adalah rumusan dari setiap mata pelajaran/bidang studi/mata kuliah. Misalnya tujuan kurikuler mata pelajaran IPA pada pendidikan dasar, Contoh: Pebelajar memiliki pengetahuan tentang lingkungan alam serta keterampilan, wawasan dan kesadaran teknologi dalam kaitannya dengan pemanfaatannya bagi kehidupan sehari-hari.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut<span> </span>Harjanto (2008), perumusan tujuan Instruksional dalam desain pembelajaran merupakan perumusan yang jelas dimana memuat pernyataan tentang kemampuan dan tingkah laku peserta didik setelah mengikuti suatu program pengajaran tertentu untuk satu topik atau subtopik tertentu. Dengan demikian dapat dipertegas bahwa perumusan instruksional berfungsi sebagai tercapainya hasil belajar berupa perubahan tingkah laku dan kriteria untuk mengukur keberhasilan suatu kegiatan pembelajaran. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan instruksional ini dapat dibedakan menjadi tujuan instruksional umum (TIU) dan tujuan instruksional khusus (TIK). Menurut Grounlund dalam Harjanto (2008) tujuan instruksional umum <span> </span>(TIU) adalah hasil belajar yang diharapkan yang dinyatakan secara umum dan berpedoman pada perubahan tingkah laku dalam kelas. Tujuan instruksional umum (TIU) merupakan serangkaian hasil belajar yang bersifat umum. Sedangkan tujuan instruksional khusus (TIK) adalah hasil belajar yang dinyatakan dalam istilah perubahan tingkah laku khusus. Tingkah laku khusus adalah kata kerja yang dapat diamati dan diukur.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kegunaan TIU dalam proses belajar mengajar menurut Harjanto (2008) adalah:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan kriteria yang pasti untuk mengukur kemajuan belajar peserta didik.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan kepastian mengenai kemampuan yang diharapkan dari peserta didik.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan dasar untuk mengembangkan alat evaluasi untuk mengukur efektifitas pengajaran.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menentukan petunjuk dalam menentukan materi dan strategi instruksional.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Petunjuk bagi peserta didik tentang apa yang dipelajari dan apa yang akan dinilai dalam mengikuti suatu pelajaran.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik akan mengorganisasikan usaha dan kegiatannya untuk mencapai tujuan instruksional yang telah ditentukan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Suparman (2004), merumuskan tujuan instruksional khusus (TIK) merupakan:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dasar dan pedoman bagi seluruh proses pengembangan tujuan instruksional selanjutnya (perumusan TIK merupakan titik permulaan sesungguhnya dari proses pengembangan instruksional). </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Alat untuk menguji validitas isi tes (isi pelajaran yang akan diajarkan disesuaikan dengan apa yang akan dicapai). </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></strong><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Arah proses pengembangan instruksional karena di dalamnya tercantum rumusan pengetahuan, keterampilan dan sikap yang akan dicapai peserta didik pada akhir proses instruksional.</span><strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;"></span></strong></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><strong>Merumuskan Tujuan Pembelajaran</strong></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Seiring dengan pergeseran teori dan cara pandang dalam pembelajaran, saat ini telah terjadi pergeseran dalam perumusan tujuan pembelajaran. W. James Popham dan Eva L. Baker (2005) mengemukakan pada masa lampau guru diharuskan menuliskan tujuan pembelajarannya dalam bentuk bahan yang akan dibahas dalam pelajaran, dengan menguraikan topik-topik atau konsep-konsep yang akan dibahas selama berlangsungnya kegiatan pembelajaran. </div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Tujuan pembelajaran pada masa lalu ini tampak lebih mengutamakan pada pentingnya penguasaan bahan bagi siswa dan pada umumnya yang dikembangkan melalui pendekatan pembelajaran yang berpusat pada guru (<em>teacher-centered</em>). Namun seiring dengan pergeseran teori dan cara pandang dalam pembelajaran, tujuan pembelajaran yang semula lebih memusatkan pada penguasaan bahan, selanjutnya bergeser menjadi penguasaan kemampuan siswa atau biasa dikenal dengan sebutan penguasaan kompetensi atau performansi.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Dalam praktik pendidikan di Indonesia, pergeseran tujuan pembelajaran ini terasa lebih mengemuka sejalan dengan munculnya gagasan penerapan Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Kendati demikian, di lapangan kegiatan merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran seringkali dikacaukan dengan perumusan indikator pencapaian kompetensi. <span lang="SV">Sri Wardani (2008) bahwa tujuan pembelajaran merupakan target pencapaian kolektif, karena<span> </span>rumusan tujuan pembelajaran dapat dipengaruhi oleh desain kegiatan dan strategi pembelajaran yang disusun guru untuk siswanya. Sementara rumusan indikator pencapaian kompetensi tidak terpengaruh oleh desain ataupun strategi kegiatan pembelajaran yang disusun guru, karena rumusannya lebih bergantung kepada karakteristik Kompetensi Dasar yang akan dicapai siswa. Di samping terdapat perbedaan, keduanya memiliki titik persamaan yaitu memiliki fungsi sebagai acuan arah proses dan hasil pembelajaran.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Terlepas dari kekacauan penafsiran yang terjadi di lapangan,<span> </span>yang pasti bahwa untuk merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran tidak dapat dilakukan secara sembarangan, tetapi harus memenuhi beberapa kaidah atau kriteria tertentu. W. James Popham dan Eva L. Baker (2005) menegaskan bahwa seorang guru profesional harus merumuskan tujuan pembelajarannya dalam bentuk perilaku siswa yang dapat diukur yaitu menunjukkan apa yang dapat dilakukan oleh siswa tersebut sesudah mengikuti pelajaran. Selanjutnya, dia menyarankan dua kriteria yang harus dipenuhi dalam memilih tujuan pembelajaran, yaitu:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><em>Preferensi nilai guru</em> yaitu cara pandang dan keyakinan guru mengenai apa yang penting dan seharusnya diajarkan kepada siswa serta bagaimana cara membelajarkannya.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><em>analisis taksonomi perilaku, dengan</em> menganalisis taksonomi perilaku ini, guru akan dapat menentukan dan menitikberatkan bentuk dan jenis pembelajaran yang akan dikembangkan, apakah seorang guru hendak menitikberatkan pada pembelajaran kognitif, afektif ataukah psikomotor.<span> </span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Berbicara tentang taksonomi perilaku siswa sebagai tujuan belajar, saat ini para ahli pada umumnya sepakat untuk menggunakan pemikiran dari Bloom, sebagai tujuan pembelajaran, yang dikenal dengan sebutan taksonomi Bloom (Bloom’s Taxonomy). Menurut Bloom perilaku individu dapat diklasifikasikan ke dalam 3 (tiga) ranah, yaitu: </div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><i>Ranah kognitif</i>; ranah yang berkaitan aspek-aspek intelektual atau berfikir/nalar, di dalamnya mencakup: pengetahuan (<em>knowledge</em>), pemahaman (<em>comprehension</em>), penerapan (<em>application</em>), penguraian (<em>analysis</em>), memadukan (<em>synthesis</em>), dan penilaian (<em>evaluation</em>); </div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><i>Ranah afektif</i>; ranah yang berkaitan aspek-aspek emosional, seperti perasaan, minat, sikap, kepatuhan terhadap moral dan sebagainya, di dalamnya mencakup: penerimaan (<em>receiving/attending</em>), sambutan (<em>responding</em>), penilaian (<em>valuing</em>), pengorganisasian (<em>organization</em>), dan karakterisasi (<em>characterization</em>); dan </div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><i>Ranah psikomotor</i>; ranah yang berkaitan dengan aspek-aspek keterampilan yang melibatkan fungsi sistem syaraf dan otot (<em>neuronmuscular system</em>) dan fungsi psikis. Ranah ini terdiri dari : kesiapan (<em>set</em>), peniruan (<em>imitation)</em>, membiasakan (<em>habitual</em>), menyesuaikan (<em>adaptation</em>) dan menciptakan (<em>origination</em>). Taksonomi ini merupakan kriteria yang dapat digunakan oleh guru untuk mengevaluasi mutu dan efektivitas pembelajarannya.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Dalam setiap aspek taksonomi terkandung kata kerja operasional yang menggambarkan bentuk perilaku yang hendak dicapai melalui suatu pembelajaran. Untuk lebih jelasnya, dalam tabel berikut disajikan contoh kata kerja operasional dari masing-masing ranah.<span> </span></div><div style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">Tabel <span style="letter-spacing: 2.3pt;">1:</span> Kata Kerja Ranah Kognitif</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: -24.15pt; width: 690px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 17.5pt;"> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; height: 17.5pt; padding: 0in; width: 94.65pt;" width="126"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Pengetahuan</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 17.5pt; padding: 0in; width: 1.25in;" width="120"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Pemahaman</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 17.5pt; padding: 0in; width: 81pt;" width="108"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Penerapan</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 17.5pt; padding: 0in; width: 81pt;" width="108"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Analisis</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 17.5pt; padding: 0in; width: 1.25in;" width="120"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Sintesis</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 17.5pt; padding: 0in; width: 81pt;" width="108"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Penilaian</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 430.35pt;"> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 430.35pt; padding: 0in; width: 94.65pt;" valign="top" width="126"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengutip</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyebutkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menjelaskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggambar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membilang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengidentifikasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendaftar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menunjukkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberi label</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberi indeks</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memasangkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menamai</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menandai</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membaca</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyadari</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menghafal</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meniru</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mencatat</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengulang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mereproduksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meninjau</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyatakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempelajari</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mentabulasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberi kode</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menelusuri</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menulis</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 430.35pt; padding: 0in; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperkirakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menjelaskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkategorikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mencirikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merinci</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengasosiasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membandingkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menghitung</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkontraskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengubah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempertahankan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menguraikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menjalin</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membedakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendiskusikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggali</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mencontohkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menerangkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengemukakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempolakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperluas</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyimpulkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meramalkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merangkum</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menjabarkan</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 430.35pt; padding: 0in; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menugaskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengurutkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menentukan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menerapkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyesuaikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkalkulasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memodifikasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengklasifikasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menghitung</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membangun</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membiasakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mencegah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menentukan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggambarkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggunakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menilai</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melatih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggali</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengemukakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengadaptasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyelidiki</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengoperasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempersoalkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkonsepkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melaksanakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meramalkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memproduksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memproses</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengaitkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyusun</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mensimulasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memecahkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melakukan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mentabulasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memproses</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.85pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meramalkan</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 430.35pt; padding: 0in; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menganalisis</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengaudit</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memecahkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menegaskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendeteksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendiagnosis</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyeleksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merinci</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menominasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendiagramkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Megkorelasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merasionalkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menguji</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mencerahkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menjelajah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membagankan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyimpulkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menemukan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menelaah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memaksimalkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memerintahkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengedit</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengaitkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengukur</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melatih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mentransfer</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 430.35pt; padding: 0in; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengabstraksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengatur</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menganimasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengumpulkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkategorikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkode</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengombinasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyusun</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengarang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membangun</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menanggulangi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menghubungkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menciptakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkreasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengoreksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merancang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merencanakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendikte</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meningkatkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperjelas</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memfasilitasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membentuk</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merumuskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggeneralisasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggabungkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memadukan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membatas</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mereparasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menampilkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyiapkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memproduksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merangkum</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merekonstruksi</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 430.35pt; padding: 0in; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membandingkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyimpulkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menilai</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengarahkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkritik</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menimbang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memutuskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memisahkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memprediksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperjelas</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menugaskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menafsirkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempertahankan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memerinci</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengukur</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merangkum</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membuktikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memvalidasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengetes</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendukung</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memproyeksikan</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tabel <span style="letter-spacing: 2.3pt;">2:</span> Kata Kerja Ranah Afektif</span></div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 642px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 19.45pt;"> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; height: 19.45pt; padding: 0in; width: 95.8pt;" width="128"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menerima</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 19.45pt; padding: 0in; width: 97.85pt;" width="130"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menanggapi</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 19.45pt; padding: 0in; width: 85.5pt;" width="114"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menilai</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 19.45pt; padding: 0in; width: 103.5pt;" width="138"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengelola</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 19.45pt; padding: 0in; width: 99pt;" width="132"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menghayati</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 163.4pt;"> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 163.4pt; padding: 0in; width: 95.8pt;" valign="top" width="128"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempertanyakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengikuti</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menganut</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mematuhi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 9.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meminati</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 163.4pt; padding: 0in; width: 97.85pt;" valign="top" width="130"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menjawab</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membantu</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengajukan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengompromikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyenangi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyambut</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendukung</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyetujui</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menampilkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melaporkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengatakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menolak</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 163.4pt; padding: 0in; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengasumsikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meyakini</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melengkapi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Meyakinkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperjelas</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memprakarsai</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengimani</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengundang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggabungkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengusulkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menekankan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyumbang</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 163.4pt; padding: 0in; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menganut</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengubah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menata</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengklasifikasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengombinasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempertahankan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membangun</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membentuk</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">pendapat</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memadukan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengelola</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menegosiasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 11.05pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merembuk</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 163.4pt; padding: 0in; width: 99pt;" valign="top" width="132"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengubah perilaku</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Berakhlak mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempengaruhi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendengarkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengkualifikasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melayani</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menunjukkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membuktikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memecahkan</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tabel 3. Kata Kerja Ranah Psikomotorik</span></div><div align="center"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 26pt;"> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; height: 26pt; padding: 0in; width: 110.8pt;" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menirukan</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.8pt;" width="140"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memanipulasi</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26pt; padding: 0in; width: 97.05pt;" width="129"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Pengalamiahan</span></b></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26pt; padding: 0in; width: 91.55pt;" width="122"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Artikulasi</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 167.55pt;"> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 167.55pt; padding: 0in; width: 110.8pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengaktifkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyesuaikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggabungkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melamar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengatur</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengumpulkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menimbang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperkecil</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membangun</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengubah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membersihkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memposisikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 6pt 10pt 5.4pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengonstruksi</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 167.55pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.8pt;" valign="top" width="140"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengoreksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendemonstrasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Merancang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melatih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperbaiki</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengidentifikasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengisi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menempatkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membuat</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memanipulasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mereparasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mencampur</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 167.55pt; padding: 0in; width: 97.05pt;" valign="top" width="129"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengalihkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggantikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memutar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengirim</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memindahkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendorong</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menarik</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memproduksi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mencampur</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengoperasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengemas</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 6.6pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membungkus</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 167.55pt; padding: 0in; width: 91.55pt;" valign="top" width="122"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengalihkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempertajam</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Membentuk</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memadankan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggunakan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Memulai</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyetir</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menjeniskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menempel</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menseketsa</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Melonggarkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 8.9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Menimbang</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Merujuk pada pemikiran Bloom di atas, tampak bahwa tujuan pembelajaran seyogyanya dapat mencakup seluruh ranah perilaku individu. Artinya, tidak hanya sebatas pencapaian perubahan perilaku kognitif atau intelektual semata, yang hingga<span> </span>ini tampaknya masih bisa ditemukan dalam praktik pembelajaran di Indonesia. </div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Menurut Oemar Hamalik (2005) bahwa komponen-komponen yang harus terkandung dalam tujuan pembelajaran, yaitu:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Perilaku terminal</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Kondisi-kondisi</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Standar ukuran</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Hal tersebut juga dikemukakan Mager (Hamzah B. Uno, 2008) bahwa tujuan pembelajaran sebaiknya mencakup tiga komponen utama, yaitu:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Menyatakan apa yang seharusnya dapat dikerjakan siswa selama belajar dan kemampuan apa yang harus dikuasainya pada akhir pelajaran.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Perlu dinyatakan kondisi dan hambatan yang ada pada saat mendemonstrasikan perilaku tersebut</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Perlu ada petunjuk yang jelas tentang standar penampilan minimum yang dapat diterima.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Berkenaan dengan perumusan tujuan yang berorientasi performansi, Dick dan Carey (Hamzah Uno, 2008) menyatakan bahwa tujuan pembelajaran terdiri atas:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Tujuan harus menguraikan apa yang akan dapat dikerjakan atau diperbuat oleh anak didik.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Menyebutkan tujuan, memberikan kondisi atau keadaan yang menjadi syarat yang hadir pada waktu anak didik berbuat.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Menyebutkan kriteria yang digunakan untuk menilai unjuk perbuatan anak didik yang dimaksudkan pada tujuan.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Masih berkenaan dengan perumusan tujuan pembelajaran, Hamzah B. Uno (2008) menekankan pentingnya penguasaan guru tentang tata bahasa, karena dari rumusan tujuan pembelajaran itulah dapat tergambarkan konsep dan proses berfikir guru yang bersangkutan dalam menuangkan idenya tentang pembelajaran.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Hamzah B. Uno (2008) mengemukakan tentang teknis penyusunan tujuan pembelajaran dalam format <strong>ABCCD. A</strong>=<em>Audience</em> (petatar, siswa, mahasiswa, murid dan sasaran didik lainnya), <strong>B</strong>=<em>Behavior</em> (perilaku yang dapat diamati sebagai hasil belajar), <b>C</b>=<i>Conten</i> ( isi atau materi harus sesuai dengan tujuan yang ingin dicapai), <strong>C</strong>=<em>Condition</em> (persyaratan yang perlu dipenuhi agar perilaku yang diharapkan dapat tercapai, dan <strong>D</strong>=<em>Degree</em> (tingkat penampilan yang dapat diterima).</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Contoh rumusan tujuan pembelajaran dalam perkuliahan mata kuliah Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran.<span> </span>Setelah mengikuti kegiatan perkuliahan diharapkan:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 5pt 0.25in 5pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><i>“Mahasiswa dapat menjelaskan prinsip-prinsip dalam kegiatan pengembangan Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan dengan metode diskusi minimal tiga prinsip”. </i><i><span lang="IN"></span></i></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 9pt; text-align: justify;">Mahasiswa= <i>Audience</i></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 9pt; text-align: justify;">Menjelaskan= <i>Behavior</i></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 9pt; text-align: justify;"><span>Prinsip dalam kegiatan pengembangan Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan</span>= <i>Conten<span></span></i></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 9pt; text-align: justify;"><span>Metode diskusi=<i>Condition</i></span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 9pt; text-align: justify;">Minimal tiga prinsip= <i>Degree</i></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Kegiatan merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran pada dasarnya merupakan otoritas guru sepenuhnya, namun seiring dengan penerapan konsep pembelajaran demokratis dan pembelajaran partisipatif, maka dalam merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran, selain memperhatikan tuntutan kurikulum yang berlaku, seyogyanya guru dapat melibatkan<span> </span>siswa didalamnya. Keterlibatan siswa dalam merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran memungkinkan siswa untuk dapat lebih termotivasi dan lebih fokus mengikuti setiap kegiatan<span> </span>belajar dan pembelajarannya. Dalam hal ini, guru dituntut untuk memiliki keterampilan mengharmonisasikan untuk mempertemukan tujuan-tujuan pembelajaran sebagaimana digariskan dalam kurikulum dengan tuntutan kebutuhan dan tujuan belajar siswa.<span lang="IN"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">TUJUAN KOGNITI</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">F</span></b></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Tujuan pendidikan ini sangat luas. Biasanya merupakan pernyataan tujuan pendidikan umum, ya<span lang="IN">ng</span> dapat dipakai sebagai petunjuk pendidikan seluruh negara<span lang="IN">.</span> Zais menjelaskan tujuan <span lang="IN">pembelajaran </span>merupakan pernyataan yang melukiskan<span lang="IN"> tujuan</span> yang diharapkan, tujuan atau hasil yang didasarkan pada p<span lang="IN">roses pembelajaran. </span>Tujuan ini mungkin dapat dicapai setelah seseorang menyelesaikan pendidikan<span lang="IN">.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><strong><span style="font-weight: normal;">Pembelajaran</span></strong> adalah proses interaksi <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peserta_didik" title="Peserta didik">peserta didik</a> dengan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pendidik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pendidik (halaman belum tersedia)">pendidik</a> dan sumber belajar pada suatu lingkungan belajar. Pembelajaran merupakan bantuan yang diberikan pendidik agar dapat terjadi proses pemerolehan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu">ilmu</a> dan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengetahuan" title="Pengetahuan">pengetahuan</a>, penguasaan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemahiran&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kemahiran (halaman belum tersedia)">kemahiran</a> dan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tabiat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tabiat (halaman belum tersedia)">tabiat</a>, serta pembentukan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikap" title="Sikap">sikap</a> dan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepercayaan" title="Kepercayaan">kepercayaan</a> pada peserta didik. Dengan kata lain, pembelajaran adalah proses untuk membantu peserta didik agar dapat <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belajar" title="Belajar">belajar</a> dengan baik.<span lang="IN"></span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Proses pembelajaran dialami sepanjang hayat seorang <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manusia" title="Manusia">manusia</a> serta dapat berlaku di manapun dan kapanpun. Pembelajaran mempunyai pengertian yang mirip dengan pengajaran, walaupun mempunyai <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konotasi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Konotasi (halaman belum tersedia)">konotasi</a> yang berbeda. Dalam konteks <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendidikan" title="Pendidikan">pendidikan</a>, <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a> mengajar <span lang="IN">bertujuan </span>supaya peserta didik dapat belajar dan menguasai isi pelajaran hingga mencapai sesuatu objektif yang ditentukan (aspek kognitif), juga dapat mempengaruhi perubahan sikap (aspek afektif), serta keterampilan (aspek psikomotor) seseorang peserta didik. Pengajaran memberi kesan hanya sebagai pekerjaan satu pihak, yaitu pekerjaan guru saja. Sedangkan pembelajaran juga menyiratkan adanya interaksi antara guru dengan peserta didik.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan pembelajaran sebagaimana telah tercantum dalam pembukaan UUD 45 ba</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">h</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">wa tujuan pembelajaran adalah mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa. Suatu tujuan pembelajaran adalah mendapatkan kemampuan intelektual agar mampu mengaplikasikannya dalam kehidupan sehari- hari, kemudian siswa bisa bersikap sesuai apa yang dia ketahui, kemampuan kognitif ini sangat menentukan pada kemampuan psikomotornya. Belajar tidak hanya memperoleh pengetahuan tapi juga memperoleh kemampuan intelektual, merangsang rasa ingin tahu siswa, dan memotivasi siswa.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Secara filosofis tujuan pendidikan sama dengan tujuan hidup. Pentingnya tujuan dalam proses pendidikan sama hal pentingnya pendidikan dalam proses kehidupan. Mungkin tidak ada tujuan pendidikan bagi orang yang tidak memiliki tujuan hidup. Tanpa adanya tujuan yang jelas seperti dikatakan Davies (1976:73) semua perencanaan itu bagaikan mimpi yang tak mungkin dilakukan.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Tujuan pendidikan menggambarkan tentang idealisme, cita-cita keadaan individu atau masyarakat yang dikehendaki. Karenanya tujuan merupakan salah satu hal yang penting dalam kegiatan pendidikan, sebab tidak saja memberikan arah kemana harus dituju, tetapi juga memberikan arah ketentuan yang pasti dalam memilih materi, metode, alat<span lang="IN"> atau </span>media, evaluasi dalam kegiatan yang dilakukan.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Dengan sebuah rumusan tujuan pendidikan, maka proses pendidikan akan dengan mudah dinilai/diukur tingkat kebehasilannya. Keberhasilan pendidikan akan dengan mudah dan cepat dapat dilihat dari segi pecapai tujuan. Dengan tujuan juga mempermudah menyusun/menetapkan materi, metode dan alat atau media yang digunakan dalam proses pendidikan.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Motivasi dapat diartikan sebagai suatu upaya untuk menimbulkan atau meningkatkan dorongan untuk mewujudkan perilaku tertentu yang terarah kepada pencapaian suatu tujuan tertentu. Perilaku belajar terjadi dalam situasi interaksi belajar-mengajar dalam mencapai tujuan dan hasil belajar. Dalam berbagai teori penelitian, ternyata terdapat kaitan yng erat antara kepuasan yang dicapai dalam </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">b</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">elajar denga unjuk kerja dan motivasi. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kepuasan yang diperoleh siswa dari pros</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">es</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> belajar dapat menunjukkan unjuk kerja yang dan dapat meningkatkan motivasi belajar. Unjuk kerja yang dicapai seseorang dapat mendapatkan kepuasan dan kemudian dapat meningkatkan motivasi, dalam kaitan ini hendaknya dapat ditimbulkan suasana belajar yang sedemikian rupa sehingga dapat memberikan kepuasan agar dapat menghasilkan unjuk kerja yang baik. Faktor yang mempengaruhi kepuasan siswa dalam belajar yaitu imbalan hasil belajar, rasa aman dalam belajar, kondisi belajar yang memadai, kesempatan untuk memperluas diri</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ada beberapa prinsip motivasi yang dapat dijadikan acuan yaitu prinsip kompetisi, prinsip pemacu, prinsip ganjaran dan hukuman, kejelasan dan kedekatan tujuan, pemahaman hasil, peengembangan minat, lingkungan yang kondusif, keteladanan. Pengamatan dan perhatian merupakan aspek tingkah laku yang mempunyai peranan penting dalam proese pembelajaran.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Keefektipan suatu pross peembelajaran akan banyak mempengaruhi kognitip siswa, akan mempengaruhi tujuan pembelajaran. Pengamatan atau pe</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">rsepsi</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, merupakan salah satu bentuk perilaku kognitif, yaitu suatu proses mengenal lingkungan dengan menggunakan alat indera. Prosses peng</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mat</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">n tejadi karena adanya rangsangan dari lingkungan yang diterima oleh individu den</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">g</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">an </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">p</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">enggunaan alat indera. Rangsangan itu kemudian diteruskan ke pusat kesadaran yaitu otak untuk kemudian diberika</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">n</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> makna dan tafsiran. Dilihat dari proporsi penggunaan alat indera ada beberapa gaya pengamatan yaitu: gaya pengamatan visual, gaya auditif, gaya taktil, gaya kinestetik.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Perhatian dapat diartikan sebagai peningkatan aktivitas mental terhadap suatu rangsangan tertentu. Perhatian dapat lebih memusatkan pengamatan individu kepada suatu rangsangan, sehinnga pengamatan menjadi lebih efektif.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ciri-ciri seseorang yang mempunyai perkembangan intelektual menurut bruner :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Meningkatnya kemampuan menginternalisasi berbagai phenomena menjadi satu system simpanan ( strorage system ).</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bertambahnya ketidaktergantungan respon terhadap stimulus.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Meningkatnya kemampuan berkomunikasi melalui symbol-simbol.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">I</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ndicator keberhasilan pembelajaran dapat di klasifikasikan menjadi tiga yaitu :</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Keefektifan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pembelajaran dikatakan efektif jika pembelajaran tersebut mampu memberikan atau menambah informasi atau pengetahuan baru bagi siswa</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Adapun keefektifan pembelajaran dapat diukur dengan criteria :</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kecermatan penguasaan kemampuan atau perilaku yang dipelajari</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kecepatan unjuk kerja sebagai bentuk hasil belaja</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kesesuaian dengan prosedur kegiatan belajar yang harus ditempuh</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">uantitas unjuk kerja sebagai bentuk hasil belajar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kualitas hasil akhir yang dapat dicapai</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat alih belajar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat retensi belajar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Efisiensi</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pembelajaran yang efisien adalah pembelajaran yang menyenangkan, menggairahkan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">dan mampu memberikan motivasi bagi siswa dalam belajar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>Daya Tarik</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Daya tarik yang dimaksud dalam hal ini adalah pembelajaran itu diukur dengan mengamati kecendurungan peserta didik untuk berkeinginan terus belajar.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gagne memengemukakan adanya 5 jenis tujuan/hasil belajar, yaitu :</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">V</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">erbal </span><span class="ilad"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">information</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> (informasi verbal)</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Y</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">aitu kemampuan untuk menyatakan atau</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mengungkapkan kembali</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">secara verbal pengetahuan ataukah informasi yang telah</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">dimilikinya dalam arti bahwa seseorang yang telah memiliki pengetahuan tertentu</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">berkemampuan untuk menuangkan pengetahuan itu dalam bentuk</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">bahas</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">an </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(baik</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> tu</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">lisan maupun tertulis yang memadai) sehingga dapat dikomunikasikan kepada</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span class="ilad"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">orang</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> lain, </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">intelectual skills (kecakapan intelektual)</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">M</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">enunjuk kepada</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kemampuan untuk berhubungan dengan lingkungan hidup dan dirinya sendiri</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">dalam</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">bentuk suatu representasi, khususnya konsep dan berbagai lambang/simbol (huruf,angka, kata, gambar). Cakupan dari kecakapan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">intelektual ini meliputi kecakapan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">yang sangat sederhana sampai kepada</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kemampuan yang bersifat kompleks sesuai</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kapasitas intelektual yang dimilki seseorang</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kecakapan intelektual ini terdiri atas 4</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">sub kemampuan yang bersifat</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">hierarkhi, yaitu: diskriminasi, konsep, kaidah, dan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">prinsip</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">cognitive </span><span class="ilad"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">strategies</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> (strategi kognitif)</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>menunjuk pada kemampuan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mengatur cara/proses belajar dan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mengelola/mengorganisir proses berpikir dalam arti</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">yang seluas-luasnya. Seseorang yang memiliki strategi kognitif yang baik akan jauh<br />
lebih efisien dan efektif dalam mempergunakan semua konsep dan kaidah yang<br />
dimilikinya dibandingkan dengan seseorang yang tidak berkemampuan demikian</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Strategi kognitif ini oleh Ruthkopf dinamakan “mathemagenic activities“,</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Impilkasi teori perkembangan kognitif Piaget dalam pengajaran antara lain :</span></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bahasa dan cara fikir anak berbeda dengan orang dewasa oleh karena itu dalam mengajar guru hendaknya mengg</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">u</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">nakan bahasa yang sesuai dengan cara berfikir anak.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Anak-anak akan beajar lebih baik apabila dapat menghadapi lingkungan d</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">e</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">n</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">g</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">an baik. Guru harus membantu agar dapat berinteraksi dengan lingkungan dengan ba</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">i</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">k.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bahan yang akan dipelajari anak hendaknya dirasakan baru tetapi tidak asing.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Beri peluang agar anak mau belajar sesuai dengan peringkat perkembangannya.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Di dalam kelas hendaknya anak-anak diberi peluang untuk saling berbicara dan ber</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">di</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">skusi dengan teman-temannya.</span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dalam kaitan dengan pengajaran ada sembilan langkah pengajaran yang memicu timbulnya kemampuan intelektual atau kognitif siswa dintaranya yaitu:</span></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Melakukan tindakan untuk menarik perhatian siswa.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan infomasi kepada siswa mengenai tujuan pengajaran.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Merangsang siswa untuk melakukan aktivitas pembelajaran.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyampaikan isi yang akan di bahas sesuai dengan topik.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan bimbingan bagi aktivitas siswa.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan peneguhan kepada perilaku pembelajaran siswa.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan umpan balik terhadap perilaku yang ditunjukkan siswa.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Melaksanakan penilaian proses dan hasil pembelajaran.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Membe</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ri</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk mengingat dan menggunakan hasil pembelajaran.</span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tercapainya tujuan pembelajaran kognitip pada siswa juga ditentukan oleh model-model pembelajaran yang digunakan oleh guru. Guru dapat membantu siswa dalam memusatkan memelihara perha</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">i</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">tan dalam proses pembelajaran dengan hal-hal sebagai berikut:</span></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Isyarat, memberikan isyarat-isyarat tertentu kepada siswa pada saat memulai pelajaran atau pada saat pergantian aktivitas.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gerakan, senantiasa bergerak dan berkeliling ke seluruh kelas selama menyajikan pelajaran.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Variasi,menggunakan gaya variasi dalam gaya mengajar.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Minat, memberikan minat siswa sebelum dan selama pro</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">s</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">es pengajaran.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pertanyaan, mengajukan pertanyaan selama proses pengajaran berlangsung, mendorong siswa untuk memberikan jawaban denga</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">n</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> kata-kata sendiri.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suatu proses pembelajaran akan berlangsung dengan efektif apabila informasi yang dipelajari dapat diingat dengan baik dan terhindar dari lupa. Mengingat adalah merupakan proses menerima, menyimpan, dan mengeluarkan kembali inforrmasi-informasi yang telah diterima melalui pengamatan, kemudian disimpan dalam pusat kesadaran (otak) setelah diberikan tafsiran.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Yang dimaksud dengan transfer dalam pembelajaran ialah pemindahan hasil pembelajaran dari suatu situasi ke situa</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">s</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">i lain. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">s</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">fer akan terjadi apabla terdapat kesamaan antara pembelajaran yang satu dengan situasi lainnya</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dalam proses pembelajaran kebutuhan merupakan sumber timbulnya motivasi. Kebutuhan (need) dapat diartikan sebagai suatu sitiasi kekurangan dalam diri inividu dan menuntut pemuasan agar dapat berfungsi secara efektif. Kebutuhan merupakan sumber timbulnya motivasi yang mendorong individu untuk berperilaku</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> yaitu menuntut ilmu agar mendapatkan pengetahuan intelektual sebagai tujuan utama dari pembelajaran.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Proses pengajaran yang efektif terbentuk melalui pengajaran yang me</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mi</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">liki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut:</span></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Berpusat pada siswa</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Interaksi edukatif antara guru dengan siswa</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suasana demokratis</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Variasi metode mengajar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Guru profesional</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bahan yang sesuai dan bermanfaat</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Lingkungan yang kondusif</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sarana belajar yang menunjang</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Model mengajar dikelompokkan dalam empat rumpun yaitu</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> :</span></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Rumpun model pemrosesan informasi, model ini berorientasi pada kecakapan siswa dam memproses informasi. terdiri atas: model berpikir induktif, model latihan inkuri, inkuri ilmiah, penemuan konsep, pertumbuhan kognitif, model penata lanjutan dan memori.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Rumpun model-model personal, model ini berorientasi kepada individu dan perkembangan keakuan (selfhood), terdiri atas; pengajaran non-direktif, latihan kesadaran, sinektik, sistem-sistem konseptual dan pertemuan kelas.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Rumpun model interaksi sosial, model ini menekankan hubungan individu dengan orang lain atau masyarakat, terdiri dari; penentuan kelompok, inkuiri (penemuan sosial), metode laboratori, jurisprudensial, bermain peran, model penata lanjutan, dan simulasi sosial.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Rumpun model behavior (perilaku), model ini menekankan pada aspek perubahan perilaku psikologis dan perilaku yang tidak dapat diamati, terdiri dari: manajemen kontingensi, kontrol diri, relaksasi, pengurangan ketegangan, latihan asertif desensitasi, latihan langsung.</span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Teori perkembangan kognitif</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, dikembangkan oleh </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Jean Piaget</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, seorang </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikolog" title="Psikolog"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">psikolog</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Swiss yang hidup tahun </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896" title="1896"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1896</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">-</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980" title="1980"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1980</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Teorinya</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> memberikan banyak konsep utama dalam lapangan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi#psikologi_perkembangan" title="Psikologi"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">psikologi perkembangan</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> dan berpengaruh terhadap perkembangan konsep </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecerdasan" title="Kecerdasan"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kecerdasan</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, yang bagi Piaget, berarti kemampuan untuk secara lebih tepat merepresentasikan dunia dan melakukan operasi logis dalam representasi konsep yang berdasar pada kenyataan. Teori ini membahas munculnya dan diperolehnya</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">skema tentang bagaimana seseorang mempersepsi lingkungannya dalam tahapan-tahapan perkembangan, saat seseorang memperoleh cara baru dalam merepresentasikan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasi" title="Informasi"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">informasi</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> secara mental. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Teori ini digolongkan ke dalam </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktivisme" title="Konstruktivisme"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">konstruktivisme</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, yang berarti, tidak seperti teori </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativisme" title="Nativisme"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">nativisme</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> (yang menggambarkan perkembangan kognitif sebagai pemunculan pengetahuan dan kemampuan bawaan), teori ini berpendapat bahwa kita membangun kemampuan kognitif kita melalui tindakan yang ter</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivasi" title="Motivasi"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">motivasi</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> dengan sendirinya terhadap lingkungan. Untuk pengembangan teori ini, Piaget memperoleh <i>Erasmus Prize</i>. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kemampuan kognitip berdasarkan tahapan umurnya, sebagaimana </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Piaget membagi skema yang digunakan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anak" title="Anak"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">anak</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> untuk memahami dunianya melalui empat periode utama yang berkorelasi</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> pada </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>pertambahan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usia" title="Usia"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">usia</span></a><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, yaitu :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Periode sensorimotor</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Piaget, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayi" title="Bayi"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">bayi</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> lahir dengan sejumlah </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refleks" title="Refleks"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">refleks</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> bawaan selain juga dorongan untuk mengeksplorasi dunianya. Skema awalnya dibentuk melalui diferensiasi refleks bawaan tersebut. <span>Periode sensorimotor</span> adalah periode pertama dari empat periode.</span></div><h2 style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 5pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;">Tahapan praoperasional</span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;"></span></h2><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Tahapan ini merupakan tahapan kedua dari empat tahapan. Dengan mengamati urutan permainan, Piaget bisa menunjukkan bahwa setelah akhir usia dua tahun jenis yang secara kualitatif baru dari fungsi <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi">psikologis</a> muncul. <span>Pemikiran (Pra)Operasi</span> dalam teori Piaget adalah prosedur melakukan tindakan secara mental terhadap objek-objek. Ciri dari tahapan ini adalah operasi mental yang jarang dan secara logika tidak memadai. Dalam tahapan ini, anak <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belajar" title="Belajar">belajar</a> menggunakan dan merepresentasikan objek dengan gambaran dan kata-kata. Pemikirannya masih bersifat egosentris: anak kesulitan untuk melihat dari sudut pandang orang lain. Anak dapat mengklasifikasikan objek menggunakan satu ciri, seperti mengumpulkan semua benda merah walau bentuknya berbeda-beda atau mengumpulkan semua benda bulat walau warnanya berbeda-beda.</div><h2 style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 5pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;">Tahapan operasional konkrit</span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;">.</span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%;"></span></h2><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Tahapan ini adalah tahapan ketiga dari empat tahapan. Muncul antara usia enam sampai dua<span> </span>belas tahun dan mempunyai ciri berupa penggunaan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika">logika</a> yang memadai. Proses-proses penting selama tahapan ini adalah:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span>Pengurutan</span><span lang="IN">,</span><span lang="IN"> </span>kemampuan untuk mengurutan objek menurut ukuran, bentuk, atau ciri lainnya. Contohnya, bila diberi benda berbeda ukuran, mereka dapat mengurutkannya dari benda yang paling besar ke yang paling kecil.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span>Klasifikasi</span><span lang="IN">, </span>kemampuan untuk memberi nama dan mengidentifikasi serangkaian benda menurut tampilannya, ukurannya, atau karakteristik lain, termasuk gagasan bahwa serangkaian benda-benda dapat menyertakan benda lainnya ke dalam rangkaian tersebut. Anak tidak lagi memiliki keterbatasan logika berupa <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animisme" title="Animisme">animisme</a> (anggapan bahwa semua benda hidup dan berperasaan)<span lang="IN">.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span>Decentering</span><span lang="IN">, </span>anak mulai mempertimbangkan beberapa aspek dari suatu permasalahan untuk bisa<span> </span>memecahkannya. Sebagai contoh anak tidak akan lagi menganggap cangkir lebar tapi pendek lebih sedikit isinya dibanding cangkir kecil yang tinggi.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span>Reversibility</span><span lang="IN">, </span>anak mulai memahami bahwa jumlah atau benda-benda dapat diubah, kemudian kembali ke keadaan awal. Untuk itu, anak dapat dengan cepat menentukan bahwa 4+4 sama dengan 8, 8-4 akan sama dengan 4, jumlah sebelumnya.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span>Konservasi</span><span lang="IN">, </span>memahami bahwa kuantitas, panjang, atau jumlah benda-benda adalah tidak berhubungan dengan pengaturan atau tampilan dari objek atau benda-benda tersebut.<span> </span>Sebagai contoh, bila anak diberi cangkir yang seukuran dan isinya sama banyak, mereka akan tahu bila air dituangkan ke gelas lain yang ukurannya berbeda, air di gelas itu akan tetap sama banyak dengan isi cangkir lain.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span>Penghilangan sifat Egosentrisme</span><span lang="IN">, </span>kemampuan untuk melihat sesuatu dari sudut pandang orang <span lang="IN">l</span>ai<span lang="IN">n</span> (bahkan saat orang tersebut berpikir dengan cara yang salah). Sebagai contoh, tunjukkan komik yang memperlihatkan Siti menyimpan boneka di dalam kotak, lalu meninggalkan ruangan, kemudian Ujang memindahkan boneka itu ke dalam laci, setelah itu baru Siti kembali ke ruangan. Anak dalam tahap operasi konkrit akan mengatakan bahwa Siti akan tetap menganggap boneka itu ada di dalam kotak walau anak itu tahu bahwa boneka itu sudah dipindahkan ke dalam laci oleh Ujang.</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tahapan operasional formal</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tahap operasional formal adalah periode terakhir perkembangan kognitif dalam teori Piaget. Tahap ini mulai dialami anak dalam usia sebelas tahun (saat </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubertas" title="Pubertas"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none;">pubertas</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">) dan terus berlanjut sampai </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewasa" title="Dewasa"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none;">dewasa</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. Karakteristik tahap ini adalah diperolehnya kemampuan untuk berpikir secara abstrak, menalar secara logis, dan menarik kesimpulan dari informasi yang tersedia. Dalam tahapan ini, seseorang dapat memahami hal-hal seperti cinta, bukti logis, dan nilai. Ia tidak melihat segala sesuatu hanya dalam bentuk hitam dan putih, namun ada "gradasi abu-abu" di antaranya. Dilihat dari faktor </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none;">biologis</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, tahapan ini muncul saat pubertas (saat terjadi berbagai perubahan besar lainnya), menandai masuknya ke dunia dewasa secara </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi" title="Fisiologi"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none;">fisiologis</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, kognitif, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahap_perkembangan_moral_Kohlberg" title="Tahap perkembangan moral Kohlberg"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none;">penalaran moral</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, perkembangan psikoseksual, dan perkembangan sosial. Beberapa orang tidak sepenuhnya mencapai perkembangan sampai tahap ini, sehingga ia tidak mempunyai keterampilan berpikir sebagai seorang dewasa dan tetap menggunakan penalaran dari tahap operasional konkrit.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Keempat tahapan ini memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut:</span></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Walau tahapan-tahapan itu bisa dicapai dalam usia bervariasi tetapi urutannya selalu sama. Tidak ada ada tahapan yang diloncati dan tidak ada urutan yang mundur.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Universal (tidak terkait budaya)</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bisa digeneralisasi: representasi dan logika dari operasi yang ada dalam diri seseorang berlaku juga pada semua konsep dan isi pengetahuan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tahapan-tahapan tersebut berupa keseluruhan yang terorganisasi secara logis</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Urutan tahapan bersifat hirarkis (setiap tahapan mencakup elemen-elemen dari tahapan sebelumnya, tapi lebih terdiferensiasi dan terintegrasi)</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tahapan merepresentasikan pserbedaan secara kualitatif dalam model berpikir, bukan hanya perbedaan kuantitatif</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kemampuan kognitif siswa berbeda-beda, berdasarkan intensitas belajarnya, kemampuan kognitif<span> </span>juga bergantung pada kemampuan otaknya untuk menyimpan informasi yang telah diterima, ada anak yang kemampuan intelektualnya sangat tinngi dan ada juga anak yang kemampuan intelektualnya biasa saja.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Seseorang melakukan proses belajar dengan tujuan mendapatkan kemampuan kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotor. Kemampuan kognitif ini sangat berpengaruh pada kemampuan afektif dan psikomotor.karena jika siswa mempunyai kognitif yang bagus tentunya dia akan mampu mempraktekan sesuatu yangdia ketahui, misalnya, si anak menguasai konsep asam basa, tentu dalam praktikumnya dia akan mudah karena dia sudah memahami dengan pasti apa yang harus terjadi, atau apa seharusnya hasil dari praktikum yang sudah dilakukan. Kemudian dengan pengetahuan yang dia tahu dia akan mengaplikasukan apa yang dia tahu dalam kehidupas sehari-hari, yang disebut dengan apektif. Sehingga jelaslah bahwa ketiga dari tujuan pembelajaran ini sangat berkaitan erat antara satu dengan yang lainnya</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Psikomotor</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ranah psikomotor menurut Bloom (1979), merupakan ranah yang berkaitan dengan aspek-aspek keterampilan yang melibatkan fungsi sistem syaraf dan otot (neuron</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">muscular system) dan fungsi psikis. Ranah ini terdiri dari : kesiapan (set), peniruan (imitation), membiasakan (habitual), menyesuaikan (adaptation) dan menciptakan (origination). Taksonomi ini merupakan kriteria yang dapat digunakan oleh guru untuk mengevaluasi mutu dan efektivitas pembelajarannya</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Singer (1972) menambahkan bahwa mata pelajaran yang berkaitan dengan psikomotor adalah mata pelajaran yang lebih beorientasi pada gerakan dan menekankan pada reaksi–reaksi fisik dan keterampilan tangan. Keterampilan itu sendiri menunjukkan tingkat keahlian seseorang dalam suatu tugas atau sekumpulan tugas tertentu. Menurut Mardapi (2003), keterampilan psikomotor ada enam tahap, yaitu: gerakan refleks, gerakan dasar, kemampuan perseptual, gerakan fisik, gerakan terampil, dan komunikasi nondiskursif. Gerakan refleks adalah respons motorik atau gerak tanpa sadar yang muncul ketika bayi lahir. Gerakan dasar adalah gerakan yang mengarah pada keterampilan komplek yang khusus. Kemampuan perseptual adalah kombinasi kemampuan kognitif dan motorik atau gerak. Kemampuan fisik adalah kemampuan untuk mengembangkan gerakan terampil. Gerakan terampil adalah gerakan yang memerlukan belajar, seperti keterampilan dalam olah raga. Komunikasi nondiskursif adalah kemampuan berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan gerakan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Buttler (1972) membagi hasil belajar psikomotor menjadi tiga, yaitu: specific responding, motor chaining, rule using. Pada tingkat specific responding peserta didik mampu merespons hal-hal yang sifatnya fisik, (yang dapat didengar, dilihat, atau diraba), atau melakukan keterampilan yang sifatnya tunggal, misalnya memegang raket, memegang bed untuk tenis meja. Pada motor chaining peserta didik sudah mampu menggabungkan lebih dari dua keterampilan dasar menjadi satu keterampilan gabungan, misalnya memukul bola, menggergaji, menggunakan jangka sorong, dll. Pada tingkat rule using peserta didik sudah dapat menggunakan pengalamannya untuk melakukan keterampilan yang komplek, misalnya bagaimana memukul bola secara tepat agar dengan tenaga yang sama hasilnya lebih baik.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dave (1967) dalam penjelasannya mengatakan bahwa hasil belajar psikomotor dapat dibedakan menjadi lima tahap, yaitu: imitasi, manipulasi, presisi, artikulasi, dan naturalisasi. Imitasi adalah kemampuan melakukan kegiatan-kegiatan sederhana dan sama persis dengan yang dilihat atau diperhatikan sebelumnya. Contohnya, seorang peserta didik dapat memukul bola dengan tepat karena pernah melihat atau memperhatikan hal yang sama sebelumnya. Manipulasi adalah kemampuan melakukan kegiatan sederhana yang belum pernah dilihat tetapi berdasarkan pada pedoman atau petunjuk saja. Sebagai contoh, seorang peserta didik dapat memukul bola dengan tepat hanya berdasarkan pada petunjuk guru atau teori yang dibacanya. Kemampuan tingkat presisi adalah kemampuan melakukan kegiatan-kegiatan yang akurat sehingga mampu menghasilkan produk kerja yang tepat. Contoh, peserta didik dapat mengarahkan bola yang dipukulnya sesuai dengan target yang diinginkan. Kemampuan pada tingkat artikulasi adalah kemampuan melakukan kegiatan yang komplek dan tepat sehingga hasil kerjanya merupakan sesuatu yang utuh. Sebagai contoh, peserta didik dapat mengejar bola kemudian memukulnya dengan cermat sehingga arah bola sesuai dengan target yang diinginkan. Dalam hal ini, peserta didik sudah dapat melakukan tiga kegiatan yang tepat, yaitu lari dengan arah dan kecepatan tepat serta memukul bola dengan arah yang tepat pula. Kemampuan pada tingkat naturalisasi adalah kemampuan melakukan kegiatan secara reflek, yakni kegiatan yang melibatkan fisik saja sehingga efektivitas kerja tinggi. Sebagai contoh tanpa berpikir panjang peserta didik dapat mengejar bola kemudian memukulnya dengan cermat sehingga arah bola sesuai dengan target yang diinginkan. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Untuk jenjang Pendidikan SMA, mata pelajaran yang banyak berhubungan dengan ranah psikomotor adalah pendidikan jasmani, olahraga dan kesehatan, seni budaya, fisika, kimia, biologi, dan keterampilan. Dengan kata lain, kegiatan belajar yang banyak berhubungan dengan ranah psikomotor adalah praktik di aula atau lapangan dan praktikum di laboratorium. Dalam kegiatan-kegiatan praktik itu juga mengandung ranah kognitif dan afektif, namun lebih sedikit bila dibandingkan dengan ranah psikomotor.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Ebel (1972), ada kaitan erat antara tujuan yang akan dicapai, metode pembelajaran, dan evaluasi yang akan dilaksanakan. Oleh karena ada perbedaan titik berat tujuan pembelajaran psikomotor dan kognitif maka strategi pembelajarannya juga berbeda. Menurut Mills (1977), pembelajaran keterampilan akan efektif bila dilakukan dengan menggunakan prinsip belajar sambil mengerjakan (learning by doing). Leighbody (1968) menjelaskan bahwa keterampilan yang dilatih melalui praktik secara berulang-ulang akan menjadi kebiasaan atau otomatis dilakukan. Sementara itu Goetz (1981) dalam penelitiannya melaporkan bahwa latihan yang dilakukan berulang-ulang akan memberikan pengaruh yang sangat besar pada pemahiran keterampilan. Lebih lanjut dalam penelitian itu dilaporkan bahwa pengulangan saja tidak cukup menghasilkan prestasi belajar yang tinggi, namun diperlukan umpan balik yang relevan yang berfungsi untuk memantapkan kebiasaan. Sekali berkembang maka kebiasaan itu tidak pernah mati atau hilang.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sementara itu, Gagne (1977) berpendapat bahwa kondisi yang dapat mengoptimalkan hasil belajar keterampilan ada dua macam, yaitu kondisi internal dan eksternal. Untuk kondisi internal dapat dilakukan dengan cara</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mengingatkan kembali bagian dari keterampilan yang sudah dipelajari</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mengingatkan prosedur atau langkah-langkah gerakan yang telah dikuasai Sementara itu untuk kondisi eksternal dapat dilakukan dengan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">instruksi verba</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">l</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">gambar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">demonstrasi</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">praktik</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">umpan balik. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dalam melatihkan kemampuan psikomotor atau keterampilan gerak ada beberapa langkah yang harus dilakukan agar pembelajaran mampu membuahkan hasil yang optimal. Mills (1977) menjelaskan bahwa langkah-langkah dalam mengajar praktik adalah</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">menentukan tujuan dalam bentuk perbuatan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">menganalisis keterampilan secara rinci dan berutan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mendemonstrasikan keterampilan disertai dengan penjelasan singkat dengan memberikan perhatian pada butir-butir kunci termasuk kompetensi kunci yang diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan pekerjaan dan bagian-bagian yang sukar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">memberi kesempatan kepada peserta didik untuk mencoba melakukan praktik dengan pengawasan dan bimbingan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>memberikan penilaian terhadap usaha peserta didik. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Edwardes (1981) menjelaskan bahwa proses pembelajaran praktik mencakup tiga tahap, yaitu</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">penyajian dari pendidik</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kegiatan praktik peserta didik</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">penilaian hasil kerja peserta didik. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Guru harus menjelaskan kepada peserta didik kompetensi kunci yang diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan tugas tertentu. Kompetensi kunci adalah kemampuan utama yang harus dimiliki seseorang agar tugas atau pekerjaan dapat diselesaikan dengan cara benar dan hasilnya optimal. Sebagai contoh, dalam memukul bola, kompetensi kuncinya adalah kemampuan peserta didik menempatkan bola pada titik ayun. Dengan cara ini, tenaga yang dikeluarkan hanya sedikit namun hasilnya optimal. Contoh lain, dalam mengendorkan mur dari bautnya, kompetensi kuncinya adalah kemampuan peserta didik memegang kunci pas secara tepat yakni di ujung kunci. Dengan cara ini tenaga yang dikeluarkan untuk mengendorkan mur jauh lebih sedikit bila dibandingkan dengan pengendoran mur dengan cara memegang kunci pas yang tidak tepat. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dalam proses pembelajaran keterampilan, keselamatan kerja tidak boleh dikesampingkan, baik bagi peserta didik, bahan, maupun alat. Leighbody (1968) menjelaskan bahwa keselamatan kerja tidak dapat dipisahkan dari proses pembelajaran psikomotor. Guru harus menjelaskan keselamatan kerja kepada peserta didik dengan sejelas-jelasnya. Oleh karena kompetensi kunci dan keselamatan kerja merupakan dua hal penting dalam pembelajaran keterampilan, maka dalam penilaian kedua hal itu harus mendapatkan porsi yang tinggi. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">Kawasan psikomotor berkaitan dengan ketrampilan atau skill yang bersikap manual atau motorik. Tingkatan psikomotor ini meliputi:</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Persepsi, berkenaan dengan penggunaan indra dalam melakukan kegiatan. Contoh: mengenal kerusakan mesin dari suaranya yang sumbang.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Kesiapan melakukan suatu kegiatan, berkenaan dengan melakukan sesuatu kegiatan atau set termasuk di dalamnya metal set atau kesiapan mental, <i>physical set</i> (kesiapan fisik) atau (<i>emotional set</i>) kesiapan emosi perasaan untuk melakukan suatu tindakan.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Mekanisme, berkenaan dengan penampilan respon yang sudah dipelajari dan menjadi kebiasan sehingga gerakan yang ditampilkan menunjukkan kepada suatu kemahiran. Contoh: menulis halus, menari, menata laboratorium dan menata kelas.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Respon terbimbing, berkenaan dengan meniru (imitasi) atau mengikuti, mengulangi perbuatan yang diperintahkan atau ditunjukkan oleh orang lain, melakukan kegiatan coba-coba (<i>trial and error</i>).</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Kemahiran, berkenaan dengan penampilan gerakan motorik dengan ketrampilan penuh.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>f.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Kemahiran yang dipertunjukkan biasanya cepat, dengan hasil yang baik namun menggunakan sedikit tenaga. Contoh: tampilan menyetir kendaran bermotor.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>g.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Adaptasi, berkenaan dengan ketrampilan yang sudah berkembang pada diri individu sehingga yang bersangkutan mampu memodifikasi pada pola gerakan sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi tertentu. Contoh: orang yang bermain tenis, pola-pola gerakan disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan mematahkan permainan lawan.</div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span>h.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Organisasi, berkenaan dengan penciptaan pola gerakan baru untuk disesuaikan dengan situasi atau masalah tertentu, biasanya hal ini dapat dilakukan oleh orang yang sudah mempunyai ketrampilan tinggi, seperti menciptakan model pakaian, menciptakan tarian, komposisi musik (Uno, 200<span lang="IN">9)</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span lang="IN"><span>D.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b>T</b><b><span lang="IN">ujuan pembelajaran afektif</span></b></div><div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black;">Aspek<span> </span>afektif<span> </span>mencakup watak perilaku seperti perasaan, minat, sikap, emosi, atau nilai. Ranah afektif menentukan keberhasilan belajar seseorang (Popham:</span><span style="color: black;"> </span><span style="color: black;">1995). Orang yang tidak memiliki minat pada pelajaran tertentu sulit untuk mencapai ke</span><span lang="IN" style="color: black;">be</span><span style="color: black;">rhasilan studi secara optimal.<span> </span>Seseorang yang<span> </span>berminat dalam suatu mata pelajaran diharapkan akan mencapai hasil pembelajaran yang optimal. </span><span lang="IN"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Takson</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">o</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mi tujuan afektif menurut Krathwohl, dkk.</span></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; margin-left: 0.45in;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="border: 1pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkatan ranah afektif</span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.5in;" valign="top" width="336"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kata kerja </span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pengenalan (receiving)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.5in;" valign="top" width="336"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendengarkan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menghadiri</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Melihat</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memperhatikan </span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pemberian respon (responding)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.5in;" valign="top" width="336"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengikuti</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendiskusikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Berlatih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Berpartisipasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mematuhi </span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Penghargaan terhadap nilai (valuing)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.5in;" valign="top" width="336"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Meyakinkan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bertindak</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Berargumentasi </span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pengorganisasian (organization)</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.5in;" valign="top" width="336"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memutuskan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memformulasi-kan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Membanding-kan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Membuat sistematisasi</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pengamalan (characterization)</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.5in;" valign="top" width="336"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menunjukkan sikap</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menolak</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mendemonstrasikan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menghindari </span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Krathwohl (1961) bila ditelusuri hampir semua tujuan kognitif mempunyai komponen afektif. Dalam pembelajaran sains, misalnya, di dalamnya ada komponen sikap ilmiah. Sikap ilmiah adalah komponen afektif. Tingkatan ranah afektif menurut taksonomi Krathwohl ada lima, yaitu: receiving (attending), responding, valuing, organization, dan characterization. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat receiving</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada tingkat receiving atau attending, peserta didik memiliki keinginan memperhatikan suatu fenomena khusus atau stimulus, misalnya kelas, kegiatan, musik, buku, dan sebagainya. Tugas pendidik</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> adalah</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> mengarahkan perhatian peserta didik pada fenomena yang menjadi objek pembelajaran afektif. Misalnya pendidik mengarahkan peserta didik agar senang membaca buku, senang bekerjasama, dan sebagainya. Kesenangan ini akan menjadi kebiasaan dan hal ini yang diharapkan, yaitu kebiasaan yang positif.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat responding</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Responding merupakan partisipasi aktif peserta didik, yaitu sebagai bagian dari perilakunya. Pada tingkat ini peserta didik tidak saja memperhatikan fenomena khusus tetapi ia juga bereaksi. Hasil pembelajaran pada ranah ini menekankan pada pemerolehan respons, berkeinginan memberi respons, atau kepuasan dalam memberi respons. Tingkat tertinggi pada kategori ini adalah minat, yaitu hal-hal yang menekankan pada pencarian hasil dan kesenangan pada aktivitas khusus. Misalnya senang membaca buku, senang bertanya, senang membantu teman, senang dengan kebersihan dan kerapian, dan sebagainya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat valuing</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Valuing melibatkan penentuan nilai, keyakinan atau sikap yang menunjukkan derajat internalisasi dan komitmen. Hasil belajar pada tingkat ini berhubungan dengan perilaku yang konsisten dan stabil agar nilai dikenal secara jelas. Dalam tujuan pembelajaran, penilaian ini diklasifikasikan sebagai sikap dan apresiasi.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat organization</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada tingkat organization, nilai satu dengan nilai lain dikaitkan, konflik antar nilai diselesaikan, dan mulai membangun sistem nilai internal yang konsisten. Hasil pembelajaran pada tingkat ini berupa konseptualisasi nilai atau organisasi sistem nilai. Misalnya pengembangan filsafat hidup.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat characterization</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pengamalan (</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">characterization</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">) merupakan tingkatan tertinggi dari ranah afektif</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. Pada tingkat ini peserta didik memiliki sistem nilai yang mengendalikan perilaku</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">nya</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> sampai pada waktu tertentu hingga terbentuk gaya hidup. Hasil pembelajaran pada tingkat ini berkaitan dengan pribadi, emosi, dan sosial.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Karakteristik Ranah Afektif</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pemikiran atau perilaku harus memiliki dua kriteria untuk diklasifikasikan sebagai ranah afektif (Andersen, 1981</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4). Pertama, perilaku melibatkan perasaan dan emosi seseorang. Kedua, perilaku harus tipikal perilaku seseorang. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ada 5 (lima) tipe karakteristik afektif yang penting, yaitu sikap, minat, konsep diri, nilai, dan moral. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sikap </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sikap merupakan suatu kencenderungan untuk bertindak secara suka atau tidak suka terhadap suatu objek. Sikap dapat dibentuk melalui cara mengamati dan menirukan sesuatu yang positif, kemudian melalui penguatan serta menerima informasi verbal. Perubahan sikap dapat diamati dalam proses pembelajaran, tujuan yang ingin dicapai, keteguhan, dan konsistensi terhadap sesuatu. Penilaian sikap adalah penilaian yang dilakukan untuk mengetahui sikap peserta didik terhadap mata pelajaran, kondisi pembelajaran, pendidik, dan sebagainya. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Fishbein dan Ajzen (1975) sikap adalah suatu predisposisi yang dipelajari untuk merespon secara positif atau negatif terhadap suatu objek, situasi, konsep, atau orang. Sikap peserta didik terhadap objek misalnya sikap terhadap sekolah atau terhadap mata pelajaran. Sikap peserta didik ini penting untuk ditingkatkan (Popham, 1999). Sikap peserta didik terhadap mata pelajaran, misalnya kimia, harus lebih positif setelah peserta didik mengikuti pembelajaran kimia dibanding sebelum mengikuti pembelajaran. Perubahan ini merupakan salah satu indikator keberhasilan pendidik dalam melaksanakan proses pembelajaran. Untuk itu pendidik harus membuat rencana pembelajaran termasuk pengalaman belajar peserta didik yang membuat sikap peserta didik terhadap mata pelajaran menjadi lebih positif.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Minat</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Getzel (1966), minat adalah suatu disposisi yang terorganisir melalui pengalaman yang mendorong seseorang untuk memperoleh objek khusus, aktivitas, pemahaman, dan keterampilan untuk tujuan perhatian atau pencapaian. Sedangkan menurut kamus besar bahasa Indonesia (1990: 583), minat atau keinginan adalah kecenderungan hati yang tinggi terhadap sesuatu. Hal penting pada minat adalah intensitasnya. Secara umum minat termasuk karakteristik afektif yang memiliki intensitas tinggi. Penilaian minat dapat digunakan untuk :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a. mengetahui minat peserta didik sehingga mudah untuk pengarahan dalam pembelajaran, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">b. mengetahui bakat dan minat peserta didik yang sebenarnya, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">c. pertimbangan penjurusan dan pelayanan individual peserta didik, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">d. menggambarkan keadaan langsung di lapangan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> atau </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kelas,</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">e. mengelompokkan peserta didik yang memiliki minat sama, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">f. acuan dalam menilai kemampuan peserta didik secara keseluruhan dan memilih metode yang tepat dalam penyampaian materi, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">g. mengetahui tingkat minat peserta didik terhadap pelajaran yang diberikan pendidik, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">h. bahan pertimbangan menentukan program sekolah, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">i. meningkatkan motivasi belajar peserta didik. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">3.<span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Konsep Diri</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Smith, konsep diri adalah evaluasi yang dilakukan individu terhadap kemampuan dan kelemahan yang dimiliki. Target, arah, dan intensitas konsep diri pada dasarnya seperti ranah afektif yang lain. Target konsep diri biasanya orang</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> tetapi bisa juga institusi seperti sekolah. Arah konsep diri bisa positif atau negatif, dan intensitasnya bisa dinyatakan dalam suatu daerah kontinum, yaitu mulai dari rendah sampai tinggi.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Konsep diri ini penting untuk menentukan jenjang karir peserta didik, yaitu dengan mengetahui kekuatan dan kelemahan diri sendiri, dapat dipilih alternatif karir yang tepat bagi peserta didik. Selain itu informasi konsep diri penting bagi sekolah untuk memberikan motivasi belajar peserta didik dengan tepat. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Penilaian konsep diri dapat dilakukan dengan penilaian diri. Kelebihan dari penilaian diri adalah sebagai berikut : </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pendidik mampu mengenal kelebihan dan kekurangan peserta didik.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik mampu merefleksikan kompetensi yang sudah dicapai.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pernyataan yang dibuat sesuai dengan keinginan penanya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memberikan motivasi diri dalam hal penilaian kegiatan peserta didik.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik lebih aktif dan berpartisipasi dalam proses pembelajaran.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dapat digunakan untuk acuan menyusun bahan ajar dan mengetahui standar input peserta didik.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik dapat mengukur kemampuan untuk mengikuti pembelajaran.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik dapat mengetahui ketuntasan belajarnya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Melatih kejujuran dan kemandirian peserta didik.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik mengetahui bagian yang harus diperbaiki.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik memahami kemampuan dirinya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pendidik memperoleh masukan objektif tentang daya serap peserta didik</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mempermudah pendidik untuk melaksanakan remedial, hasilnya dapat untuk instropeksi pembelajaran yang dilakukan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik belajar terbuka dengan orang lain.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik mampu menilai dirinya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik dapat mencari materi sendiri.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peserta didik dapat berkomunikasi dengan temannya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Nilai</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Nilai menurut Rokeach (1968) merupakan suatu keyakinan tentang perbuatan, tindakan, atau perilaku yang dianggap baik dan yang dianggap buruk. Selanjutnya dijelaskan bahwa sikap mengacu pada suatu organisasi sejumlah keyakinan sekitar objek spesifik atau situasi sedangkan nilai mengacu pada keyakinan. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Target nilai cenderung menjadi ide</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> sikap dan perilaku. Arah nilai dapat positif dan negatif. Selanjutnya intensitas nilai dapat dikatakan tinggi atau rendah tergantung pada situasi dan nilai yang diacu. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Definisi lain tentang nilai disampaikan oleh Tyler (1973:7), yaitu nilai adalah suatu objek, aktivitas, atau ide yang dinyatakan oleh individu dalam mengarahkan minat, sikap, dan kepuasan. Selanjutnya dijelaskan bahwa manusia belajar menilai suatu objek, aktivitas, dan ide sehingga objek ini menjadi pengatur penting minat, sikap, dan kepuasan. Oleh karenanya satuan pendidikan harus membantu peserta didik menemukan dan menguatkan nilai yang bermakna dan signifikan bagi peserta didik untuk memperoleh kebahagiaan personal dan memberi konstribusi positif terhadap masyarakat. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Moral</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Moral berkaitan dengan perasaan salah atau benar terhadap kebahagiaan orang lain atau perasaan terhadap tindakan yang dilakukan diri sendiri. Misalnya menipu orang lain, membohongi orang lain, atau melukai orang lain baik fisik maupun psikis. Moral juga sering dikaitkan dengan keyakinan agama seseorang, yaitu keyakinan akan perbuatan yang berdosa dan berpahala. Jadi moral berkaitan dengan prinsip, nilai, dan keyakinan seseorang. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ranah afektif lain yang penting adalah:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">• <span>Kejujuran</span>: peserta didik harus belajar menghargai kejujuran dalam berinteraksi dengan orang lain. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">• <span>Integritas</span>: peserta didik harus mengikatkan diri pada kode nilai, misalnya moral dan artistik. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">• <span>Adil</span>: peserta didik harus berpendapat bahwa semua orang mendapat perlakuan yang sama dalam memperoleh pendidikan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">• <span>Kebebasan</span>: peserta didik harus yakin bahwa negara yang demokratis memberi kebebasan yang bertanggung jawab secara maksimal kepada semua orang. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Penilaian ranah afektif </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Asesmen (penilaian) dalam pembelajaran adalah suatu proses atau upaya formal pengumpulan informasi yang berkaitan dengan variabel-variabel penting pembelajaran sebagai bahan dalam pengambilan keputusan oleh guru untuk memperbaiki proses dan hasil belajar siswa (Herman et al., 1992:95; Popham, 1995:3). Variabel-variabel penting yang dimaksud sekurang-kurangya meliputi pengetahuan, pemahaman, keterampilan dan sikap siswa dalam pembelajaran yang diperoleh guru dengan berbagai metode dan prosedur baik formal maupun informal, sebagaimana dikemukakan oleh Corner</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(1991:2-3) sebagai berikut. <br />
<i>“A general term enhancing all methods customarily used to appraise performance of an individual pupil or group. It may refer to a broad appraisal including many sources of evidence and many aspect of pupil's knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes; An assessment instrument may be any method and procedure, formal or informal, for producing information about pupil”</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tujuan utama penggunaan asesmen dalam pembelajaran (classroom assessment) adalah membantu guru dan siswa dalam mengambil keputusan profesional untuk memperbaiki pembelajaran. Menurut Popham (1995:4-13) asesmen bertujuan antara lain untuk: </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>(1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mendiagnosa kelebihan dan kelemahan siswa dalam belajar, </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>(2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">memonitor kemajuan siswa, </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>(3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">menentukan jenjang kemampuan siswa, </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>(4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>menentukan efektivitas pembelajaran, </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>(5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mempengaruhi persepsi publik tentang efektivitas pembelajaran, </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>(6)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mengevaluasi kinerja guru kelas, </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>(7)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">mengklarifikasi tujuan pembelajaran yang dirancang guru. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Penggunaan jenis asesmen yang tepat akan sangat menentukan keberhasilan dalam mengakses informasi yang berkenaan dengan proses pembelajaran. Pemilihan metode asesmen harus didasarkan pada target informasi yang ingin dicapai. Informasi yang dimaksud adalah hasil belajar yang dicapai siswa.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Andersen (1980) ada dua metode yang dapat<span> </span>digunakan untuk mengukur ranah afektif, yaitu metode observasi dan metode laporan diri. Penggunaan metode observasi berdasarkan pada asumsi bahwa karateristik afektif dapat dilihat dari perilaku atau perbuatan yang ditampilkan atau<span> </span>reaksi psikologi. Metode laporan diri berasumsi bahwa yang mengetahui keadaan afektif seseorang adalah dirinya sendiri. Namun hal ini menuntut kejujuran dalam mengungkap karakteristik afektif diri sendiri. <span style="color: black;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Lewin (dalam Andersen, 1980), perilaku seseorang merupakan fungsi dari watak<span> </span>(kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotor) dan karakteristik lingkungan saat perilaku atau perbuatan ditampilkan. Jadi tindakan atau perbuatan seseorang ditentukan oleh watak dirinya dan kondisi lingkungan ditentukan oleh watak dirinya dan kondisi lingkungan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ditinjau dari tujuannya ada lima macam instrumen pengukuran ranah afektif, yaitu instrumen (1) sikap, (2) minat,<span> </span>(3) konsep diri, (4) nilai, dan (5) moral. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Instrumen sikap </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Instrumen sikap bertujuan untuk mengetahui sikap peserta didik terhadap suatu objek, misalnya terhadap kegiatan sekolah,<span> </span>mata pelajaran,<span> </span>pendidik, dan sebagainya. Sikap terhadap mata pelajaran bisa positif bisa negatif.<span> </span>Hasil pengukuran<span> </span>sikap berguna untuk menentukan strategi pembelajaran yang tepat. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Instrumen minat </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Instrumen minat bertujuan untuk memperoleh informasi tentang minat peserta didik terhadap mata pelajaran, yang selanjutnya digunakan untuk meningkatkan minat peserta didik terhadap mata pelajaran.<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Instrumen konsep diri </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>Instrumen konsep diri bertujuan untuk mengetahui kekuatan<span> </span>dan kelemahan diri sendiri.<span> </span>Peserta didik melakukan evaluasi secara objektif terhadap potensi yang ada dalam dirinya. Karakteristik potensi peserta didik sangat penting untuk menentukan jenjang karirnya. Informasi kekuatan dan kelemahan peserta didik digunakan untuk menentukan program yang sebaiknya ditempuh.<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Instrumen nilai<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>Instrumen nilai<span> </span>bertujuan untuk mengungkap<span> </span>nilai dan keyakinan<span> </span>peserta didik.<span> </span>Informasi yang diperoleh berupa nilai dan keyakinan yang<span> </span>positif dan yang negatif. Hal-hal yang<span> </span>bersifat<span> </span>positif diperkuat<span> </span>sedangkan<span> </span>yang bersifat negatif dikurangi dan akhirnya dihilangkan.<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Instrumen moral </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Instrumen moral bertujuan untuk mengungkap moral. Informasi moral seseorang diperoleh melalui pengamatan<span> </span>terhadap<span> </span>perbuatan yang ditampilkan<span> </span>dan laporan diri<span> </span>melalui pengisian<span> </span>kuesioner. Hasil pengamatan<span> </span>dan<span> </span>hasil kuesioner menjadi informasi tentang moral. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Instrumen-instrumen tersebut dapat di tuangkan dalam bentuk Quesioner. Selain melalui kuesioner ranah afektif peserta didik berupa sikap, minat, konsep diri, dan nilai juga dapat digali melalui pengamatan. Pengamatan karakteristik afektif peserta didik dilakukan di tempat<span> </span>dilaksanakannya<span> </span>kegiatan pembelajaran.<span> </span>Untuk<span> </span>mengetahui keadaan ranah afektif peserta didik, perlu ditentukan dulu indikator substansi yang akan diukur, dan pendidik harus mencatat setiap<span> </span>perilaku<span> </span>yang muncul dari peserta didik yang berkaitan dengan indikator tersebut.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Penafsiran hasil pengukuran menggunakan dua kategori yaitu positif atau negatif. Positif<span> </span>berarti minat peserta didik<span> </span>tinggi<span> </span>atau sikap peserta didik terhadap suatu objek<span> </span>baik, sedang negatif berarti minat peserta didik<span> </span>rendah atau sikap peserta didik terhadap objek kurang. Demikian juga untuk instrumen yang direncanakan untuk mengukur<span> </span>ranah afektif yang lain.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><a href="" name="5676670645984727642"></a><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">E.<span> </span></span></b><a href="http://www.dokterkimia.com/2010/06/faktor-faktor-yang-mempengaruhi-proses.html"><b><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none;">Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Proses Belajar</span></b></a><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pembelajaran merupakan proses untuk meramu sarana dan prasarana pendidikan untuk mencapai kualitas yang diharapkan. Kualitas lulusan pendidikan sangat ditentukan oleh seberapa jauh guru itu mampu mengelola dan mengolah segala komponen pendidikan melalui proses pembelajaran. Meskipun sarananya lengkap tetapi jika guru tidak mampu mengolah sarana melaluli proses pembelajaran, maka kualitas pendidikan akan terasa hambar. Ibrat makanan guru adalah juru masak, yang senantiasa memiliki kemampuan meramu bumbu sehingga makanan terasa lezat.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kendala pembelajaran<span> </span>misalnya, keterbatasan sumber belajar yang ada, keterbatasan alokasi waktu dan keterbatasan dana yang tersedia.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pembelajaran juga memiliki pengaruh yang menyebabkan kualitas pendidikan menjadi baik atau rendah mutunya. Artinya pembelajaran sangat tergantung dari kemempuan seorang pengajar atau guru dalam melaksanakan atau mengemas proses pembelajaran sehingga menghasilkan sesuai dengan apa yang di inginkan pada tujuan pendidikan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada umumnya manusia selalu ingin belajar agar mereka bisa berhadapan dengan dunia, dimana sekarang dunia sudah modern. Setiap orang yang melaksanakan suatu kegiatan, akan selalu berhadapan dengan berbagai faktor yang mempengaruhi kegiatan khususnya kegiatan belajar. Seorang guru yang bertugas membelajarkan siswa/mahasiswa senantiasa tidak terlepas dari masalah-masalah belajar yang harus dihadapi seorang siswa/mahasiswa dalam kegiatan belajarnya. Dalam ilustrasinya ada siswa yang belajar giat, tekun, dan ada siswa yang pura-pura belajar serta tidak belajar sama seekali.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dengan adanya kondisi semacam ini, perlu perhatian guru untuk mencari pemecahannya. Artinya ada masaloah yang dapat ditangani oleh seorang guru/dosen dan konselor, dan ada pula masalah yang harus dikonsoltasikan dengan ahli psikoogi. Berbagai macam masalah semuanya bersumber dari berbagai penyebab.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dalam pemecahan masalah ini sangatlah penting dalam proses belajar pembelajaran agar sasaran yang diharapkan tercapai, yaitu ”memenusiakan manusia”. Dalam kegiatan pembelajaran guru perlu memperhatikan berbagai faktor yang mempengaruhi kegiatan belajar baik yang bersumber dari diri siswa maupun faktor lingkungan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a.<span> </span>Faktor-faktor yang dari dalam diri siswa adalah:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>1.<span> </span>Sikap Terhadap Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sikap merupakan kemampuan memberikan penilaian tentang sesuatu objek tertentu baik menerima, menolak atau mengabaikan, siswa memperoleh kesempatan yang sama untuk belajar dan sikap merupakan urusan masing-masing siswa sesuai dengan sikap yang dimilikinya, peran dosen/guru Cuma mengarahkan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2. <span> </span>Motivasi Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Motivasi belajar pada setiap diri siswa bisa menjadi kuat dan lemah.lemahnya motivasi akan berpengaruh terhadap kegiatan belajar dan hasil belajar menjadi lemah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">pula dan sebaliknya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">3.<span> </span> Konsentrasi Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Konsentrasi merupakan faktor penting dalam kegiatan belajar. Konsentrasi sebagai kemampuan untuk memusatkan perhatian pada pembelaajran. Perhatian dimaksud adalah pada proses pembelajarn dan materi/bahan ajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4. <span> </span>Mengolah Hasil Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengelolah bahan belajar merupakan kemampuan siswa untuk menerima isi dan cara penyimpanannya sehingga menjadi bermakna bagi kehidupannya. Isi bahan belajar berupa pengetahuan, nilai-nilai kesusilaan, nilai agama, nilai kesenian.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">5. <span> </span>Menyimpan Perolehan Hasil Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menyimpan perolehan hasil belajar merupakan kemampuan menyimpan isi pesan dan cara pengolahan pesan. Kemampuan menyimpan hasil belajar pada setiap orang yang belajar bervariasi yaitu ada yang berlangsung dalam waktu pendek dan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">waktu yang lama.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">6. <span> </span>Menggali Hasil Belajar Yang Tersimpan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menggali hasil belajar yang tersimpan merupakan proses mengaktifkan pesan yang telah diterima. Dalam hal pesan baru, maka siswa akan memperkuat pesan dengan cara mempelajari kembali atau mengaitkannya dengan bahan lama.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">7. <span> </span>Kemampuan Prestasi/Unjuk Kerja Hasil Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kemampuan berprestasi atau unjuk hasil belajar merupakan puncak dari rangkaian proses aktivitas belajar, dengan membuktikan keberhasilan belajar. Ini bisa</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">tercapai karena berkat belajar dan latihan-latihan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">8.<span> </span> Rasa Percaya Diri.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Rasa percaya diri terbentuk dari keinginan diri bertindak dan mencapai hasil,</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">dan berkat adanya pengakuan dari pihak lain atau lingkungan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">9. <span> </span>Intelegensi Dan Keberhasilan Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Menurut Wechhsler yang diadaptasi oleh dimyati mudjiono (1994 : 234) intelegensidalah ” suatu kecakapan global atau rangkuman kecakapan untuk dapat bertindak secara terarah, berfikir secara baik dab bergaul dengan lingkungan secara efesien”</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">10.<span> </span>Kebiasaan Belajar.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kebiasaan belajar merupakan faktor yang perlu perhatikan guru/dosen dalam pembelajaran. Kebiasaan belajar dapat menjadi baik dan buruk.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">11.<span> </span>Cita-Cita.<br />
Cita-cita merupakan motivasi instrinsik yang dapat pada masing-masing siswa.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Cita-cita perlu diarahkan dan dikembangkan sehingga menjadi pendorong siswa untuk</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">belajar lebih baik dan sungguh-sungguh, berani bereksplorasi dengan kemampuan yang</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">dimilikinya, agar sasaran belajar tercapai secara memuaskan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br />
b.<span> </span> Faktor-faktor yang dari luar diri siswa adalah :</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1.<span> </span>Kondisi belajar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2.<span> </span>Tujuan belajar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">3.<span> </span>Guru sebagai pembina belajar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4.<span> </span>Prasarana dan sarana belajar</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">5.<span> </span>Kebijakanpenilaian.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">6.<span> </span>Lingkungan sosialsekolah.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">7.<span> </span>Kurikulum.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>c. <span> </span>Pemberian umpan balik</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Faktor lain yang juga penting mempengaruhi kegiatan belajar dan pembelajaran adalah umpan balik, umpan balik bermanfaat untuk mengetahui penguasaan siswa terhadap pencapaian tujuan belajar, informasi mengenai keberhasilan dan kegagalan dalam kegiatan belajar, serta sebagai koreksi untuk meningkatkan kesalahan-kesalahan yang pernah dibuat siswa dalam kegiatan belajarnya.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br />
</div>IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4749413906881464135.post-52924703821869409182011-10-17T21:46:00.000-07:002011-10-17T21:46:06.215-07:00makalah penelitian Pabrik Batu di Desa Salawangi<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">PENGOLAHAN SUMBER DAYA ALAM (BATU) DAN DAMPAKNYA BAGI ALAM SEKITAR</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(Penelitian di Desa Salawangi Kecamatan Bantarujeg Kabupaten Majalengka)</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">D</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">iajukan unuk memenuhi salah satu tugas mata kuliah Media Pengetahuan Lingkungan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Disusun Oleh:</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Iim imas (1209208045)</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Fakultas Tarbiyah dan Keguruan</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Univesitas Islam Negeri Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2010</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div><div class="JUDUL">KATA PENGANTAR</div><div class="JUDUL" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Puji syukur penulis panjatkan kehadirat Allah SWT, yang telah memberikan rahmat dan hidayah-Nya sehingga penulis dapat menyelesaikan paper ini tepat pada waktunya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Paper ini merupakan salah satu tugas mata kuliah PENGETAHUAN LINGKUNGAN yang di berikan oleh Dosen pengajar. dalam paper ini penulis membahas tentang PENGOLAHAN SUMBER DAYA ALAM (BATU) DAN DAMPAKNYA BAGI ALAM SEKITAR (Penelitian di Desa Salawangi Kecamatan Bantarujeg Kabupaten Majalengka) , dengan pertimbangan materi di atas merupakan tugas Ujian Akhir Semester sehingga dapat membantu untuk lebih memahami materi PENGETAHUAN LINGKUNGAN.</span></div><table align="left" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; margin-left: 6.75pt; margin-right: 6.75pt; width: 597px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 120.6pt;"> <td style="border: medium none; height: 120.6pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 447.5pt;" valign="top" width="597"> <div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 3.15in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3.15in;"><strong>Bandung, </strong><strong><span lang="IN">Januari 2011</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="font-weight: normal;"></span></strong></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 3.15in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3.15in;"><strong><span lang="IN">penulis</span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="font-weight: normal;"></span></strong></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 3.15in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3.15in;"><strong><span> </span></strong><strong><span lang="IN" style="font-weight: normal;"></span></strong></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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<tr style="height: 120.6pt;"> <td style="border: medium none; height: 120.6pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 447.5pt;" valign="top" width="597"> <div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Namun demikian, <strong>Kami menyadari sepenuhnya bahwa dalam penyusunan makalah ini masih banyak terdapat kekurangan, bahkan masih jauh dari kesempurnaan. </strong>Perbaikan terhadap paper ini merupakan hal yang sangat penting, sehingga kritik dan saran untuk penyempurnaan makalah ini sangat penulis harapkan. Akhirnya penulis menyampaikan terimakasih pada bapak<span> </span>dosen dan teman-teman yang telah membaca mempelajari makalah ini.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR ISI</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">KATA PENGANTAR............................................................................................................i</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR ISI..........................................................................................................................ii</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB 1 PENDAHULUAN......................................................................................................1</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar Belakang.................................................................................................................1</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistematika Penelitian......................................................................................................1</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB II PEMBAHASAN........................................................................................................2</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah...........................................................................................................................2</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses Produksi.............................................................................................................2</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak Positif dan Dampak Negatif dari Adanya Pabrik Pengolahan Batu...............3</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 28.35pt; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Penanggulangan limbah industri...................................................................................3</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB III PENUTUP................................................................................................................4</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB I</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar Belakang</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Persebaran sumber daya alam di permukaan bumi sangat beragam dan penyebarannya tidak merata. Ada sumber daya alam yang melimpah ruah dan jumlahnya terbatas atau sangat sedikit, bahkan ada yang sekali diambil akan habis. Bila terjadi ketidakseimbangan antara jumlah penduduk dan persediaan sumber daya alam, maka lingkungan hidup bisa berubah. Perubahan sebagai akibat kegiatan manusia hasilnya bisabaik dan bisa buruk.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Batu merupakan salah satu sumber daya alam yang tidak dapat diperbaharui, karena proses pembentukan batu memerlukan waktu yang cukup lama hampir ribuan tahun sehingga jika sumber daya alam batu ini habis, akan sulit diperbaharui.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.55pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Teknologi yang pesat dapat mempercepat dan mempermudah manusia dalam mengolah alam (lingkungan hidup). Dalam penggunaan teknologi harus tepat dan sesuai dengan keadaan suatu daerah. Pemanfaatan teknologi yang tidak tepat dan tidak sesuai dapat mengubah lingkungan menjadi buruk.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistematika Penelitian</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Penyusunan laporan ini dilakukan dengan melakukan penelitian langsung<span> </span>pada pabrik batu dan sebagian sumber dari internet dan buku buku.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB II</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PEMBAHASAN</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENGOLAHAN SUMBER DAYA ALAM (BATU) DAN DAMPAKNYA BAGI ALAM SEKITAR</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(Penelitian di Desa Salawangi Kecamatan Bantarujeg Kabupaten Majalengka)</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengertian Batu</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batu merupakan sumber daya alam yang tidak dapat di perbaharui karena proses pembentukan batu memerlukan waktu yang sangat lama hampir ribuan tahun lamanya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batu terbentuk dari fosil-fosil hewan yang mati kemudian tertimbun oleh tanah beribu-ribu tahun lamanya. Kemudian jadilah batu. Batu bisa diolah menjadi berbagai bentuk.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batuan memiliki beberapa ciri- ciri yang khusus. Hal ini disebabakan zat-zat yang terkandung dalam batuan ituberbeda-beda. Mungkin batuan itu banyak mengandung zat besi, tembaga, perak, emas, belerang, bauksit, dan platina.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah Pabrik</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PT. TRI JAYA ABADI STONE merupakan salah satu pabrik pengolah batu alam yang ada di daerah majalengka, tepatnya di desa Salawangi kec. Bantarujeg kab. Majalengka. Pabrik ini berdiri pada tanggal 5 November 2005, yaitu 5 tahun yang lalu. Pemilik pabrik ini yaitu Bpk. Oman Somantri, SH.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perusahaan ini bergerak dalam bidang pengolahan batu menjadi bahan bangunan dan bahan pembuatan jalan. Misalnya keramik untuk dinding rumah, keramik untuk tiang bangunan, mengecor bangunan, koral jalan dan masih banyak lagi.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jumlah karyawan di pabrik ini tidak begitu banyak, akan tetapi hasil produksinya yang dihasilkan tiap harinya cukup banyak. Bahan baku yaitu batu di datangkan dari desa Cimanggu Majalengka dan sebagian dari kota kadipaten. Pemasarannya ke daerah Jakarta, Lampung, Cirebon, Kuningan, dan sebagian lagi ke sekitar daerah majalengka.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>C.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses Produksi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 7.1pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.9pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mesin yang digunakan dalam industri ini diantaranya ada dua, yaitu mesin PUSO D16 sebgai mesin penggerak, dan Mersi. Selain itu juga menggunakan Dinamo. Mesin ini di datangkan dari singapura. Proses produksinya :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batu pertama kali di bersihkan dari tanah agar bersih.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemudian batu itu dipotong dengan menggunakan segmen, alat khusus yang digunakan untuk pemotongan batu.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Setelah di potong, batu kemudian di prame atau di bakar dengan menggunakan oksigen dan LPG agar bintik hitam di batu muncul (timbul).</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Setelah itu, barulah batu dibentuk sesuai yang di inginkan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>D.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak Negatif dan Positif dari Adanya Pabrik Pengolahan Batu</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak Negatif</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Dampak negatif dari adanya pabrik ini adalah limbah dari pabrik itu sendiri yang di hasilkan dari mesin produksinya, karena bahan bakar dari mesin itu adalah solar, selain itu juga air kotor bekas proses produksi. Limbah ini terserap oleh tanaman padi karena lokasi pabrik dekat dengan pesawahan, sehingga limbah air terserap oleh tanaman padi dan menimbulkan tanaman padi menjadi kecil atau kerdil.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Penambangan batu yang berlebihan akan membuat gunung menjadi mudah longsor. Sehingga desa tempat batu itu di tambang akan mudah terkena longsor jika terjadi hujan besar.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain itu juga pabrik ini menimbulkan polusi suara karena pada saat mesin bekerja, suaranya sangat keras sehingga menimbulkan kebisingan pada penduduk. Polusi udara juga terjadi karena mesin-mesin itu menimbulkan panas. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 29.45pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Air limbah yang dibuang ke tanah bisa merembes masuk ke tanah dan bercampur dengan air tanah. Hal itu berarti yang tercemar bukan hanya tanah, tetapi juga air bawah permukaan tanah. Akibat yang ditimbulkan dari air limbah adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kesehatan, bibit penyakit yang bisa ditularkan melalui air limbah. Contohnya kolera, disentri, dan tipes.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Keindahan, selain berbau ampas limbah tidak enak juga mengganggu keindahan lingkungan sekitarnya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kehidupan biotik, air limbah mengganggu perkembangan kehidupan karena beracun sehinnga dapat mematikan mahluk hidup.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Karat atau aus, air limbah yang mengandung gas karbon dioksida akan memperepat karat atau aus benda-benda yang terbuat dari besi.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dampak Positif</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bangunan menjadi kokoh bardiri karena menggunakan bata yang terbuat dari batu. Selain itu juga jalan-jalan menjadi bagus karena pembangunan jalan menggunakan batu.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 56.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Penanggulangan limbah industri</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Limbah dari industri terutama yang mengandung bahan-bahan kimia, sebelum dibuang harus diolah terlebih dahulu. Hal tersebut akan mengurangi bahan pencemar di perairan. Dengan demikian, bahan dari limbah pencemar yang mengandungbahan-bahan yang bersifat racun dapat di hilangkan sehingga tidak mengganggu ekosistem.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain itu juga harus menempatkan pabrik atau kawasan industri di daerah yang jauh dari keramaian penduduk. Hal ini dilakukan untuk menghindari pengaruh buruk dari limbah pabrik dan asap pabrik terhadap kehidupan masyarakat.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.55pt;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB III</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENUTUP</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kesimpulan </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahan yang menyebabkan timbulnya pencemaran pada lingkungan di sebutpolutan. Suatu bahan di katakan polutan jika kadar bahan tersebut melebihi batas kadar normal. Di samping itu, di sebut polutan jika bahan itu berada di tempat yang tidak semestinya dan pada waktu yang tidak tepat. Polutan dapat berupa bahan kimia, debu, makhluk hidup, atau bahan yang dihasilkan mahluk hidup, seperti panas, suara, atau radiasi yang masuk ke dalam lingkungan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Lingkungan yang tercemar adalah lingkungan atau ekosistem yang keadaannya tidak seimbang akibat adanya polutan yang masuk ke dalam lingkungan tersebut. adapun lingkungan alami adalah lingkungan atau ekosistem yang seimbang.Artinya, komponen biotik dan abiotik dalam ekosistem tersebut dalam keadaan seimbang.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Industri dapat menimbulkan polusi udara, polusi air, dan polusi suara begitu juga industri pengolahan batu di daerah Salawangi kecamatan Bantarujeg kabupaten Majalengka mengeluarkan polusi.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Ariesworo, Djko dan Nana Sutresna. 2006. <u>Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam</u>. Bandung : Grafindo Media Pratama.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hadiat, 1996. <u>Alam Sekitar Kita Jilid 2</u>. Jakarta : PT Ciptawidya Suara.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Wardiyatmoko. 2006. <u>Geografi Untuk SMA. </u>Jakarta : Erlangga.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 36pt; line-height: 150%;">LAMPIRAN</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB I</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar Belakang</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas mulia adalah unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan VIIIA yang memiliki kestabilan yang sangat tinggi dan sebagian ditemukan di alam dalam bentuk monoatomik karena sifat stabilnya. Unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam gas mulia yaitu Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon(Ar), Kripton(Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn). Gas-gas ini pun sangat sedikit kandungannya di bumi.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.1pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Mulia terdapat dalam atmosfer bumi, untuk Helium terdapat di luar atmosfer. Helium dapat terbentuk dari peluruhan zat radioaktif uranium dan thorium. Semua unsur - unsur gas mulia terdiri dari atom -atom yang berdiri sendiri. Unsur gas mulia yang terbanyak di alam semesta adalah Helium (banyak terdapat di bintang) yang </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">merupakan bahan bakar dari matahari. Radon amat sedikit jumlahnya di atmosfer atau udara. Dan sekalipun ditemukan akan cepat berubah menjadi unsur lain, karena radon bersifat radio aktif. Dan karena jumlahnya yang sangat sedikit pula radon disebut juga sebagi gas jarang.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.1pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Rumusan Masalah</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masalah yang kami bahas dalam makalah gas mulia ini adalah :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi gas mulia.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat-sifat gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Pembuatan gas mulia.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa pada gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 22.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>6)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegunanan Gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan rumusan masalah diatas, maka tujuan disusunnya makalah ini adalah:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan definisi gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan sejaran penemuan unsure gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan sifat fisi dan sifat kimia gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan pembuatan dan senyawa pada gas mulia</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan kegunaan gas mulia</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 4.5pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">BAB II</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 4.5pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">PEMBAHASAN</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi Gas Mulia</span></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_FCZct8RQXvPxGU5lemmgDeCLUshyphenhyphenNgiMCH6bHrKw_iruCF5qAUxKnWfCz-8KRok2UU9H3SBRlDgmDEfn-Kfcp_MGrg7LCLynrlETQuHLKDfTgFTQgL_J1Ge0VMIZuDfMEL3bSdDE4680/s1600-h/tabel-kimia.jpg"><img align="left" border="0" height="322" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg" title="" width="213" /></a>Gas mulia adalah unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan VIIIA yang memiliki kestabilan yang sangat tinggi dan sebagian ditemukan di alam dalam bentuk monoatomik karena sifat stabilnya, <span style="color: black;">mempunyai sifat lengai, tidak reaktif, dan susah bereaksi dengan bahan kimia lain. Gas mulia juga merupakan golongan kimia yang unsur-unsurnya memiliki elektron valensi luar penuh, sehingga menjadi golongan yang paling stabil dalam sistem periodik unsur. Unsur-unsurnya adalah <b>He</b> (Helium), <b>Ne</b> (Neon), <b>Ar</b> (Argon), <b>Kr </b>(Kripton), <b>Xe</b> (Xenon), dan <b>Rn</b> (Radon) yang bersifat radioaktif. Konfigurasi elektron unsur-unsur Gas Mulia adalah ns2, np6, kecuali He 1s<sup>2</sup>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Mulia yang sejati adalah unsur monoatomik. Disebut mulia karena unsur-unsur ini sangat stabil, </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">berfasa gas pada suhu ruang dan bersifat inert (sukar bereaksi dengan unsur lain). </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ditemukan satupun senyawa alami dari gas mulia. Menurut <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis"><span style="color: black;">Lewis</span></a>, kestabilan gas mulia tersebut disebabkan konfigurasi elektronnya yang terisi penuh, yaitu konfigurasi <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oktet&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Oktet (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">oktet</span></a> (<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duplet&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Duplet (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">duplet</span></a> untuk Helium). Kestabilan gas mulia dicerminkan oleh energi ionisasinya yang sangat besar, dan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afinitas_elektron&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Afinitas elektron (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">afinitas elektronnya</span></a> yang sangat rendah.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berikut ini adalah asal-usul mana unsur-unsur Gas Mulia yang diambil dari bahasa Yunani, yaitu:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium à ήλιος (<i>ílios</i> or <i>helios</i>) = Matahari</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Neon à νέος (<i>néos)</i> = Baru</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Argon à αργός (<i>argós)</i> = Malas</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kripton à κρυπτός (<i>kryptós)</i> = Tersembunyi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xenon à ξένος (<i>xénos)</i> = Asing</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Radon (pengecualian) diambil dari Radium</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah Gas Mulia</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sejarah gas mulia awal dari penemuan Cavendish pada tahun 1785. Cavendish menemukan sebagian kecil bagian udara (kurang dari 1/200 bagian) sama sekali tidak bereaksi walaupun sudah melibatkan gas-gas atmosfer.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada tahun 1894, seorang ahli kimia Inggris bernama </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Lord Raleigh dan Sir William Ramsay </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">mengidentifikasi zat baru yang terdapat dalam udara. Sampel udara yang sudah diketahui mengandung nitrogen, oksigen, dan karbon dioksida dipisahkan. Ternyata dari hasil pemisahan tersebut, masih tersisa suatu gas yang tidak reaktif (<i>inert</i>). Gas tersebut tidak dapat bereaksi dengan zat-zat lain sehingga dinamakan <b><i>argon</i></b> (dari bahasa Yunani <i>argos</i> yang berarti malas). Empat tahun kemudian Ramsay menemukan unsur baru lagi, yaitu dari hasil pemanasan mineral <i>kleverit</i>. Dari mineral tersebut terpancar sinar alfa yang merupakan spektrum gas baru. Spektrum gas tersebut serupa dengan garis-garis tertentu dalam spektrum matahari. Untuk itu, diberi nama <b><i>helium</i></b> (dari bahasa Yunani <i>helios</i> berarti matahari). </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nama Helium sendiri merupakan saran dari Lockyer dan Frankland. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada saat ditemukan, kedua unsur ini tidak dapat dikelompokkan ke dalam golongan unsur-unsur yang sudah oleh Mendeleyev karena memiliki sifat berbeda. Kemudian Ramsey mengusulkan agar unsur tersebut ditempatkan pada suatu golongan tersendiri, yaitu terletak antara golongan halogen dan golongan alkali. Untuk melengkapi unsur-unsur dalam golongan tersebut, pada tahun 1898 Ramsey dan Travers terus melakukan penelitian dan akhirnya menemukan lagi unsur-unsur lainnya, yaitu <b><i>neon</i></b><i> </i><span>(</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ditemukan dengan cara mencairkan udara dan melakukan pemisahan dari gas lain dengan penyulingan bertingkat</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, <b><i>kripton</i></b>, dan <b><i>xenon</i></b> (</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ditemukan dalam residu yang tersisa setelah udara cair hampir menguap semua</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> / hasil destilasi udara cair). </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada tahun 1900 <b><i>Radon</i></b> ditemukan oleh Friedrich Ernst Dorn, yang menyebutnya sebagai pancaran radium. William Ramsay dan Robert Whytlaw-Gray menyebutnya sebagai niton serta menentukan kerapatannya sehingga mereka menemukan Radon adalah zat yang paling berat di masanya (sampai sekarang). Nama Radon sendiri baru dikenal pada tahun 1923. <span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Radon amat sedikit jumlahnya di atmosfer atau udara. Dan sekalipun ditemukan akan cepat berubah menjadi unsur lain, karena radon bersifat radioaktif. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">unsur <span>gas mulia</span> terbanyak di alam semesta adalah <span>helium</span> (pada bintang-bintang) </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">karena Helium merupakan bahan bakar dari matahari.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada masa itu, golongan tersebut merupakan kelompok unsur-unsur yang tidak bereaksi dengan unsur-unsur lain (inert) dan diberi nama golongan unsur gas mulia.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Di tahun 1898, Huge Erdmann mengambil nama Gas Mulia (<i>Noble Gas</i>) dari bahasa Jerman <i>Edelgas</i> untuk menyatakan tingkat kereaktifan Gas Mulia yang sangat rendah. Nama <i>Noble</i> dianalogikan dari <i>Noble Metal</i> (Logam Mulia), emas, yang dihubungkan dengan kekayaan dan kemuliaan. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Para ahli zaman dahulu yakin bahwa unsur-unsur gas mulia <span style="color: black;">benar-benar </span></span><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inert&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Inert (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">inert</span></a></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. Pendapat ini dipatahkan, setelah pada tahun 1962, </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neil_Bartlett&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Neil Bartlett (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Neil Bartlett</span></a></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, seorang ahli kimia</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> dari Kanada berhasil membuat senyawa xenon, yaitu XePtF<sub>6</sub>. Sejak itu, berbagai senyawa gas mulia berhasil dibuat. Dan akhirnya istilah untuk menyebut zat-zat telah berganti. Yang awalnya disebut gas inert (lembam) telah berganti menjadi gas mulia yang berarti stabil atau sukar bereaksi. <span class="fullpost">Senyawa gas mulia yang ditemukan pertama kali adalah XePtF6.</span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b></span><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelimpahan di Alam</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Semua unsur gas mulia terdapat di udara, kecuali radon yang merupakan unsur radioaktif. Unsur gas mulia yang paling banyak terdapat di udara adalah argon </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">yang merupakan komponen ketiga terbanyak dalam udara setelah nitrogen dan oksigen. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Unsur-unsur Gas Mulia, kecuali Radon, melimpah jumlahnya karena terdapat dalam udara bebas. Argon terdapat di udara bebas dengan kadar 0,93%, Neon 1,8×10<sup>-3</sup>%, Helium 5,2×10<sup>-4</sup>%, Kripton 1,1×10<sup>-4</sup>%, dan Xenon 8,7×10<sup>-6</sup>%. Helium adalah unsur terbanyak jumlahnya di alam semesta karena Helium adalah salah satu unsur penyusun bintang.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium diperoleh dari sumur-sumur gas alam di Texas dan Kansas (Amerika Serikat).</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.1pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium dapat terbentuk dari peluruhan zat radioaktif uranium dan thorium. Udara mengandung gas Mulia (Ar, Ne, Xe, dan Kr) walaupun dalam jumlah yang kecil, gas mulia di Industri di peroleh sebagai hasil samping dalam Industri pembuatan gas nitrogen dan O</span><sub><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.1pt; line-height: 150%;">.<span class="fullpost"></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat-sifat gas mulia</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat-Sifat Umum :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="width: 100%;"><tbody>
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</tbody></table><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><img alt="*" height="13" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="13" /><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak Berwarna, tidak berbau, tidak berasa, sedikit larut dalam air.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><img alt="*" height="13" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="13" /><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mempunyai elektron valensi 8, dan khusus untuk Helium elektron valensinya 2</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span><img alt="*" height="13" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="13" /><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Molekul-molekulnya terdiri atas satu atom (monoatom).</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas mulia merupakan unsur gas pada suhu kamar dan mendidih hanya beberapa derajat di atas titik cairnya. Jari-jari, titik leleh serta titik didih gasnya bertambah seiring bertambahnya nomor atom. Sedangkan energi pengionnya berkurang.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berikut merupakan beberapa sifat dari gas mulia.</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 6pt 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel 1. Sifat-sifat Gas Mulia</span></b></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; margin-left: 23.4pt; width: 612px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="border: 1pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Mulia</span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nomor Atom</span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Titik Leleh (˚C)</span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Titik Didih (˚C)</span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Energi Ionisasi (kJ/mol)</span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jari-jari Atom (Angstrom)</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">He</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: -0.9pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-272,2</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-268,9</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2738</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">0,50</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ne</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">10</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-248,7</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-245,9</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2088</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">0,65</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ar</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">18</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-189,2</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-185,7</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1520</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">0,95</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kr</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">36</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-156,6</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-152,3</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1356</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1,10</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xe</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">54</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-111,9</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-107,1</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1170</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1,30</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Rn</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">86</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-71</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-62</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.5pt;" valign="top" width="114"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1040</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;" valign="top" width="108"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1,45</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari tabel diatas dapat dilihat jari – jari atom yang kecil </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(dalam satu golongan, semakin keatas semakin kecil)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> mempunyai energi ionisasi besar artinya elektronnya sangat sukar dilepaskan, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">elektron terluar relatif lebih tertarik ke inti atom. Oleh sebab itu, atom-atom gas mulia sangat sukar untuk bereaksi. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari atas ke bawah jari – jari atom makin besar, energi ionisasinya makin kecil atau makin mudah melepaskan elektron, sehingga gas mulia dari atas ke bawah makin reaktif. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kestabilan unsur-unsur golongan gas mulia dan s</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">emakin besarnya harga energi ionisasi suatu atom</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> menyebabkan unsur-unsur gas mulia sukar membentuk ion </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(terionisasi), </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>artinya sukar untuk melepas elektron </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">agar berubah jadi ion positif. Selain itu makin besar ukuran sebuah atom, makin mudah melepas elektron kulit terluarnya, karena jaraknya makin jauh dari intinya yang bermuatan positif. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kereaktifan gas mulia akan berbanding lurus dengan jari-jari atomnya, jadi kereaktifan gas mulia akan bertambah dari He ke Rn hal ini disebabkan pertambahan jari-jari atom</span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> yang mengakibatkan gaya tarik inti atom terhadap elektron kulit terluar berkurang, sehingga <span style="color: black;">lebih </span></span></span><span style="color: black;"><a href=""><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">mudah</span></a></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> melepaskan diri dan ditarik oleh atom lain. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetapi gas mulia adalah unsur yang tidak reaktif karena memiliki konfigurasi elektron yang sudah stabil, hal ini didukung kenyataan bahwa gas mulia di alam selalu berada sebagai atom tunggal atau monoatomik. Tetapi bukan berarti gas mulia tidak dapat bereaksi, hingga sekarang gas mulia periode 3 ke atas (Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) sudah dapat berreaksi dengan unsur yang sangat elektronegatif seperti Flourin dan Oksigen. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sampai saat ini, senyawa <span>gas mulia</span> yang sudah dapat bereaksi dengan zat lain adalah <span>xenon</span> dan <span>kripto</span>n, sedangkan <span>helium</span>, <span>neon</span>, dan <span>argon</span> masih sangat stabil.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Titik didih dan titik leleh unsur-unsur gas mulia lebih kecil dari pada suhu kamar (25<sup>0</sup>C atau 298 K) sehinga seluruh unsur gas mulia berwujud gas. Karena kestabilan unsur-unsur gas mulia, maka di alam berada dalam bentuk <i>monoatomik.</i><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Titik leleh dan titik didih unsur – unsur gas mulia perbedaannya sangat sedikit misalnya Neon meleleh pada suhu -2490C dan mendidih pada suhu -2460C karena gaya tarik atom – atom gas mulia sangat kecil.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Adapula hal penting yang menyebabkan gas mulia amat stabil yaitu konfigurasi elektronnya. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Elektron valensi gas mulia sudah memenuhi kaidah Duplet untuk He dan kaidah Oktet untuk Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe dan Rn. <span style="color: black;">Konfigurasi elektron gas mulia (kecuali He) berakhir pada ns<sup>2</sup> np<sup>6</sup>. Konfigurasi tersebut merupakan konfigurasi elektron yang stabil, sebab semua elektron pada kulitnya sudah berpasangan. Oleh sebab itu, tidak memungkinkan terbentuknya ikatan kovalen dengan atom lain. Energi ionisasi yang tinggi menyebabkan gas mulia sukar menjadi ion positif dan berarti sukar membentuk senyawa secara ionik.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berikut adalah konfigurasi elektron gas mulia</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 6pt 0in 6pt 27.35pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel 2. Konfigurasi elektron gas mulia</span></b></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin-left: 48.35pt; width: 75%;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 1.15pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Unsur</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 2.6pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nomor Atom</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Konfigurasi Elektron</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">He</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1s<sup>2</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ne</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">10</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">[He] 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>6</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ar</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">18</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kr</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">36</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">[Ar] 4s<sup>2</sup> 3d<sup>10</sup> 4p<sup>6</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xe</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">54</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">[Kr] 5s<sup>2</sup> 4d<sup>10</sup> 5p<sup>6</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 20.42%;" width="20%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Rn</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in; width: 25.5%;" width="25%"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span><span> </span>86</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0in;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">[Xe] 6s<sup>2</sup> 5d<sup>10</sup> 6p<sup>6</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Karena konfigurasi elektronnya yang stabil gas mulia juga biasa digunakan untuk penyingkatan konfigurasi elektron bagi unsur lain.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">contoh :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Br = 1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>6</sup> 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> 3d<sup>10</sup> 4p<sup>5 </sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">menjadi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Br = [Ar] 4s<sup>2</sup> 3d<sup>10</sup> 4p<sup>5</sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dua elektron dari He membuat subkulit s menjadi penuh dan unsur-unsur gas mulia yang lain pada kulit terluarnya terdapat 8 elektron karena kulit terluarnya telah penuh maka gas mulia bersifat stabil dan tidak reaktif. Jadi <i>afinitas elektronnya</i> mendekati nol.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuatan Gas Mulia</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Helium</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium (He) ditemukan terdapat dalam gas alam di Amerika Serikat. Gas helium mempunyai titik didih yang sangat rendah, yaitu -268,8˚C sehingga pemisahan gas helium dari gas alam dilakukan dengan cara pendinginan sampai gas alam akan mencair (sekitar -156˚C) dan gas helium terpisah dari gas alam.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Argon, Neon, Kripton, dan Xenon</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Udara mengandung gas mulia argon (Ar), neon (Ne), krypton (Kr), dan xenon (Xe) walaupun dalam jumlah yang kecil. Gas mulia di industri diperoleh sebagai hasil samping dalam industri pembuatan gas nitrogen dan gas oksigen dengan proses destilasi udara cair. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span> </span></div><table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
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</div><br clear="ALL" /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada proses destilasi udara cair, udara kering (bebas uap air) didinginkan sehingga terbentuk udara cair. Pada kolom pemisahan gas argon bercampur dengan banyak gas oksigen dan sedikit gas nitrogen karena titik didih gas argon (-189,4˚C) tidak jauh beda dengan titik didih gas oksigen (-182,8˚C). Untuk menghilangkan gas oksigen dilakukan proses pembakaran secara katalitik dengan gas hidrogen, kemudian dikeringkan untuk menghilangkan air yang terbentuk. Adapun untuk menghilangkan gas nitrogen, dilakukan cara destilasi sehingga dihasilkan gas argon dengan kemurnian 99,999%. Gas neon yang mempunyai titik didih rendah (-245,9˚C) akan terkumpul dalam kubah kondensor sebagai gas yang tidak terkonsentrasi (tidak mencair).</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas kripton (Tb = -153,2˚C) dan xenon (Tb = -108˚C) mempunyai titik didih yang lebih tinggi dari gas oksigen sehingga akan terkumpul di dalam kolom oksigen cair di dasar kolom destilasi utama. Dengan pengaturan suhu sesuai titik didih, maka masing-masing gas akan terpisah.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Semua unsur gas mulia terdapat di udara, kecuali Radon(Rn) yang hanya terdapat sebagai isotop radioaktif berumur pendek, yang diperoleh dari peluruhan radio aktif atom radium. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Unsur radon (Rn) yang merupakan unsur radioaktif Radium (Ra) dengan memancarkan sinar alfa (helium) sesuai dengan persamaan reaksi:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">88</span></sup></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ra<sub>226</sub> → <sup>86</sup>Rn<sub>222 </sub>+ <sup>2</sup>He<sub>4</sub></span></span><sub><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></sub></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><img align="left" height="192" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/DEIVON%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.jpg" width="262" /><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembentukan Senyawa pada Gas Mulia</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Mulia adalah gas yang sudah memiliki 8 elektron valensi dan memiliki kestabilan yang tinggi. Tetapi gas mulia pun masih dapat bereaksi dengan atom lain. Karena sebenarnya tidak semua sub kuit pada gas mulia terisi penuh.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh:<br />
Ar : [Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebenarnya atom Ar masih memiliki 1 Sub kulit yang masih kosong yaitu sub kulit d jadi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ar : [Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup> 3d<sup>0</sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">jadi masih bisa diisi oleh atom-atom lain.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sampai dengan tahun 1962, para ahli masih yakin bahwa unsur-unsur gas mulia tidak bereaksi. Kemudian seorang ahli kimia kanada bernama Neil Bartlet berhasil membuat persenyawaan yang stabil antara unsur gas mulia dan unsur lain, yaitu XePtF<sub>6</sub>.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Keberhasilan ini didasarkan pada reaksi:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PtF<sub>6 </sub>+ O<sub>2</sub> → (O<sub>2</sub>)+ (PtF<sub>6</sub>)<sup>-</sup></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PtF6 ini bersifat oksidator kuat. Molekul oksigen memiliki harga energi ionisasi 1165 kJ/mol, harga energi ionisasi ini mendekati harga energi ionisasi unsur gas mulia Xe = 1170 kJ/mol.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Atas dasar data tersebut, maka untuk pertama kalinya Bartlet mencoba mereaksikan Xe dengan PtF6 dan ternyata menghasilkan senyawa yang stabil sesuai dengan persamaan reaksi:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xe + PtF<sub>6</sub> → Xe+(PtF<sub>6</sub>)<sup>-</sup></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Setelah berhasil membentuk senyawa XePtF<sub>6</sub>, maka gugurlah anggapan bahwa gas mulia tidak dapat bereaksi. Kemudian para ahli lainnya mencoba melakukan penelitian dengan mereaksikan xenon dengan zat-zat oksidator kuat, diantaranya langsung dengan gas flourin dan menghasilkan senyawa XeF<sub>2</sub>, XeF<sub>4</sub>, dan XeF<sub>6</sub>. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Reaksi gas mulia lainnya, yaitu krypton menghasilkan senyawa KrF<sub>2</sub>. Radon dapat bereaksi langsung dengan F<sub>2</sub> dan menghasilkan RnF<sub>2</sub>. Hanya saja senyawa KrF<sub>2</sub> dan RnF<sub>2</sub> bersifat (tidak stabil).</span></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: center;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel 3. Beberapa senyawaan Xenon</span></span></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; width: 637px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 31.15pt;"> <td style="border: 1pt solid black; height: 31.15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tingkat Oksidasi</span></span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 31.15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawaan </span></span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 31.15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bentuk</span></span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 31.15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;" valign="top" width="84"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Titik Didih (˚C)</span></span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 31.15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Struktur</span></span></div></td> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: black black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 31.15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tanda-tanda</span></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 58pt;"> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 58pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">II</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">IV</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 58pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeF<sub>2</sub></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeF<sub>4</sub></span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 58pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 58pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;" valign="top" width="84"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">129</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">117</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 58pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Linear</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Segi-4</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 58pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Terhidrolisis menjadi Xe + O<sub>2</sub>; sangat larut dalam HF</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil</span></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 27.35pt;"> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 27.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">VI</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 27.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeF<sub>6</sub></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 24pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cs<sub>2</sub>XeF<sub>8</sub></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 24pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeOF<sub>4</sub></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 24pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeO<sub>3</sub></span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 27.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Padatan kuning</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cairan tak berwarna</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kristal tak berwarna</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 27.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;" valign="top" width="84"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">49,6</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-46</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 27.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Oktahedral terdistorsi</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Archim. Antiprisma</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Piramid segi-4</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Piramidal</span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 27.35pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil pada 400˚</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabil</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mudah meledak, higroskopik; stabil dalam larutan</span></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 26.45pt;"> <td style="-moz-border-bottom-colors: none; -moz-border-image: none; -moz-border-left-colors: none; -moz-border-right-colors: none; -moz-border-top-colors: none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 26.45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" valign="top" width="73"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">VIII</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26.45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeO<sub>4</sub></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeO<sub>6 </sub><sup>4-</sup></span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26.45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas tak berwarna</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Garam tak berwarna</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26.45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;" valign="top" width="84"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26.45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetrahedral</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Oktahedral</span></span></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 26.45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.5pt;" valign="top" width="198"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mudah meledak</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Anion- anion HXeO<sub>6</sub><sup>3-</sup>, H<sub>2</sub>XeO<sub>6</sub><sup>2-</sup>, H<sub>3</sub>XeO<sup>6-</sup> ada juga</span></span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 6pt 27pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa gas mulia He dan Ne sampai saat ini belum dapat dibuat mungkin karena tingkat kestabilannya yang sangat besar. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas-gas ini pun sangat sedikit kandungannya di bumi. dalam udara kering maka akan ditemukan kandungan gas mulia sebagai berikut : Helium = 0,00052 %; Neon = 0,00182 %; Argon = 0,934 %; Kripton = 0,00011 %; Xenon = 0,000008; Radon = Radioaktif* </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel 4. contoh Reaksi dan cara pereaksian pada gas mulia</span></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="width: 646px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas Mulia</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Reaksi</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nama senyawa yang terbentuk</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cara peraksian</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ar(Argon)</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ar<sub>(s)</sub> + HF → HArF</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Argonhidroflourida</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Senyawa ini dihasilkan oleh fotolisis dan matriks Ar padat dan stabil pada suhu rendah</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kr(Kripton)</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kr<sub>(s)</sub> + F<sub>2</sub> <sub>(s)</sub> → KrF<sub>2</sub> <sub>(s)</sub> </span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kripton flourida</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Reaksi ini dihasilkan dengan cara mendinginkan Kr dan F<sub>2</sub>pada suhu -196 <sup>0</sup>C lalu diberi loncatan muatan listrik atau sinar X</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xe(Xenon)</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + F<sub>2(g)</sub> → XeF<sub>2(s)</sub><br />
<br />
Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + 2F<sub>2(g)</sub> → XeF<sub>4(s)</sub><br />
<br />
Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + 3F<sub>2(g)</sub>→ XeF<sub>6(s)</sub></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <hr align="left" size="2" width="100%" /> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
XeF<sub>6(s)</sub> + 3H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> → XeO<sub>3(s)</sub> +6HF<sub>(aq)</sub></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6XeF<sub>4(s)</sub> + 12H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> → 2XeO<sub>3(s)</sub> + 4Xe<sub>(g)</sub> + 3O<sub>(2)(g)</sub> + 24HF<sub>(aq)</sub></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xenon flourida</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <hr align="left" size="2" width="100%" /> </span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xenon oksida</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeF<sub>2</sub> dan XeF<sub>4</sub> dapat<br />
diperoleh dari pemanasan Xe dan F<sub>2</sub>pada tekanan6 atm, jika umlah peraksi F<sub>2</sub> lebih besar maka akan diperoleh XeF<sub>6</sub></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <hr align="left" size="2" width="100%" /> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">XeO<sub>4</sub> dibuat dari reaksi disproporsionasi(reaksi dimana unsur pereaksi yang sama sebagian teroksidasi dan sebagian lagi tereduksi) yang kompleks dari larutan XeO<sub>3</sub> yang bersifat alkain</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Rn(Radon)</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 136.25pt;" width="182"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Rn<sub>(g)</sub> + F2<sub>(g)</sub> → RnF</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Radon flourida</span></div></td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bereaksi secara spontan.</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fluorida XeF<sub>2</sub>, XeF<sub>4</sub>, dan XeF<sub>6</sub> diperoleh dengan mereaksikan xenon dengan flouor dalam kuantitas yang makin bertambah. Dalam senyawa-senyawa ini, xenon mempunyai bilangan oksidasi genap +2, +4, dan +6, yang khas bagi kebanyakan senyawaan xenon. Fluorida-fluorida adalah lahan permulaan untuk mensintesis senyawaan xenon lainnya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Satu-satunya produk yang diperoleh bila krypton bereaksi dengan fluor adalah difluoridanya, KrF<sub>2</sub>. Tak dikenal lain-lain keadaan oksidasi selain +2. Dari kira-kira selusin senyawaan krypton yang dikenal, semuanya merupakan garam kompleks yang diturunkan dari KrF<sub>2</sub>. Karena radon bersifat radioaktif dan mempunyai waktu paruh empat hari, kekimiawiannya sukar dipelajari. Namun, eksistensi radon fluorida, baik yang mudah menguap maupun yang tak mudah menguap, telah didemonstrasikan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 12pt 27.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>7.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegunaan Gas Mulia</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium<br />
Helium merupakan zat yang ringan dan tidak mudah terbakar, Helium biasa digunakan untuk mengisi balon udara, dan helium yang tidak reaktif digunakan untuk mengganti nitrogen untuk membuat udara buatan yang dipakai dalam penyelaman dasar laut. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Para penyelam bekerja pada tekanan tinggi. Jika digunakan campuran nitrogen dan oksigen untuk membuat udara buatan, nitrogen yang terisap mudah terlarut dalam darah dan dapat menimbulkan halusinasi pada penyelam. Oleh para penyelam, keadaan ini disebut “pesona bawah laut”. Ketika penyelam kembali ke permukaan, (tekanan atmosfer) gas nitrogen keluar dari darah dengan cepat. Terbentuknya gelembung gas dalam darah dapat menimbulkan rasa sakit atau kematian.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Helium yang berwujud cair juga dapat digunakan sebagai zat pendingin karena memiliki titik uap yang sangat rendah.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Neon<br />
Neon biasanya digunakan untuk pengisi bola lampu neon. Selain itu juga neon dapat digunakan untuk berbagi macam hal seperti indicator tegangan tinggi, zat pendingin, penangkal petir, dan mengisi tabung televisi. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Argon<br />
</span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Argon digunakan dalam las titanium pada pembuatan pesawat terbang atau roket. Argon juga digunakan dalam las stainless steel dan sebagai pengisi bola lampu pijar karena argon tidak bereaksi dengan wolfram (tungsten) yang panas.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kripton<br />
Kripton bersama argon digunakan sebagai pengisi lampu fluoresen bertekanan rendah. Krypton juga digunakan dalam lampu kilat untuk fotografi kecepatan tinggi.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Xenon<br />
Xenon dapat digunakan dalam pembuatan lampu untuk bakterisida (pembunuh bakteri) dan pembuatan tabung elektron.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>6)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Radon<br />
Radon dapat digunakan dalam terapi kanker karena bersifat radioaktif. </span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Namun demikian, jika radon terhisap dalam jumlah banyak, malah akan menimbulkan kanker paru-paru. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Radon juga dapat berperan sebagai sistem peringatan gempa, karena bila lempengan bumi bergerak kadar radon akan berubah sehingga bisa diketahui bila adanya gempa dari perubahan kadar radon.</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">BAB III</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">PENUTUP</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 20.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas mulia adalah unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam golongan VIIIA yang memiliki kestabilan yang sangat tinggi dan sebagian ditemukan di alam dalam bentuk monoatomik karena sifat stabilnya. <span style="color: black;">Disebut mulia karena unsur-unsur ini sangat stabil, </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">berfasa gas pada suhu ruang dan bersifat inert (sukar bereaksi dengan unsur lain). </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak ditemukan satupun senyawa alami dari gas mulia.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 20.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gas mulia adalah grup elemen kimia dengan sifat-sifat yang sama: di kondisi standar, mereka semua tidak berbau, tidak berwarna, dan monoatomik dengan reaktivitas yang sangat rendah. Mereka ditempatkan di grup 18 (8A) dari tebel periodik (sebelumnya dikenal dengan grup 0), yaitu helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), dan radon yang bersifat radioaktif (Rn). </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 20.05pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat-sifat gas mulia bisa dijelaskan dengan baik dengan teori modern tentang struktur atom: valensi elektron kulit luar mereka dianggap "penuh", memberi mereka sedikit sekali kesempatan untuk berpartisipasi dalam reaksi kimia, dan hanya beberapa ratus senyawa yang telah disiapkan. Titik didih dan titik leleh gas mulia mempunyai nilai yang dekat, berbeda kurang dari 10 °C (18 °F); yang mengakibatkan mereka berbentuk cairan dalam jangkauan suhu yang pendek. Jari-jari atom unsur-unsur Gas Mulia dari atas ke bawah semakin besar karena bertambahnya kulit yang terisi elektron. Energi Ionisasi dari atas ke bawah semakin kecil karena gaya tarik inti atom terhadap elektron terluar semakin lemah. Afinitas Elektron unsur-unsur Gas Mulia sangat kecil sehingga hampir mendekati nol. Titik didih unsur-unsur Gas Mulia berbanding lurus dengan kenaikan massa atom.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Farida, Ida. 2009. Modul Perkuliahan Kimia Anorganik I. Fakultas Tarbiyah dan Keguruan Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Gunung Djati. Bandung</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cotton dan Wilkinson. 1989. Kimia Anorganik Dasar. Jakarta: UI-Press</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Keenan, dkk. 1979. Kimia untuk Universitas. Jakarta: Erlangga</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Http _gas-mulia.blogspot.com_.html</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">http://kamuspengetahuan.blogspot.com/2009/03/kimia-unsur-gas-mulia-yang-stabil.html</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://chemiscihuy.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/definisi-sejarah-dan-sifat-gas-mulia/"><span style="color: black;">http://chemiscihuy.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/definisi-sejarah-dan-sifat-gas-mulia/</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://masterkimiaindonesia.com/"><span style="color: black;">http://masterkimiaindonesia.com/</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://gas-mulia.blogspot.com/2009/11/gas-mulia.html"><span style="color: black;">http://gas-mulia.blogspot.com/2009/11/gas-mulia.html</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_mulia"><span style="color: black;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_mulia</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://kimia.upi.edu/utama/bahanajar/kuliah_web/2007/Roni%20Sudra%20jat/home.html"><span style="color: black;">http://kimia.upi.edu/utama/bahanajar/kuliah_web/2007/Roni%20Sudra%20jat/home.html</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://adypurwoko.blogspot.com/2009/01/gas-mulia.html"><span style="color: black;">http://adypurwoko.blogspot.com/2009/01/gas-mulia.html</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://h4rv3st.blogspot.com/2008/06/unsur-unsur-gas-mulia.html"><span style="color: black;">http://h4rv3st.blogspot.com/2008/06/unsur-unsur-gas-mulia.html</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://www.scribd.com/doc/19015264/Tabel-Periodik-Golongan-VIIIA-2"><span style="color: black;">http://www.scribd.com/doc/19015264/Tabel-Periodik-Golongan-VIIIA-2</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">http://handoyodwiprakoso.blogspot.com/2009/02/tugas-kimia-bu-ninin.html</span></div>IIM IMAShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03651068887537616476noreply@blogger.com1